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THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 
THADDEUS  WRONSKI 


The 
SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

By 
THADDEUS  WRONSKI 

Including 

ARTICLES  ON  ANATOMY  AND  VOCAL  HYGIENE 

By 

JOHN  F.  LEVBARG,  M.  D. 


D.    APPLETON    AND    COMPANY 
NEW  YORK  .  LONDON  :  MCMXXI 


COPYRIGHT,    IQ2 1,   BY 

D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 


PRINTED    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES    OF  AMERICA 


The  undersigned  singers  of  the  Metropolitan 
Opera  Company  have  examined  and  analyzed  the 
Italian  edition  of  Thaddeus  Wronski's  book,  The 
Singer  and  His  Art,  and  unanimously  declare: 

1.  The  first  part  of  the  book,  namely,  "The 
Voice,"  contains  most  logical  ideas  and  practical 
professional  theories  for  the  singer.    Its  clear  ex- 
planation will  be  of  great  assistance  not  only  to 
the  singer-student  but  also  to  vocal  teachers,  for 
it  describes  as  nearly  as  possible  the  good  and 
bad  in  tone  production  and  helps  to  discard  the 
bad  and  apply  the  good. 

2.  The  parts  on  mimicry  and  the  art  of  make- 
up represent  a  most  serious  work  in  this  line  and 
their  value  to  the  professional  world  is  beyond 
estimation. 


PREFACE 

This  book  has  been  written  to  assist  the  vocal- 
ist in  his  studies  and  to  help  the  vocal  teacher  in 
solving  problems  that  are  confronting  him  every 
day. 

The  three  parts  of  the  book — voice,  mimicry 
(art  of  acting),  and  art  of  make-up — form  a 
unit  of  great  interest  to  the  singer.  On  the  pro- 
fessional stage  they  constitute  the  "Singer's 
Art,"  and  no  one  of  the  three  should  be  neglected 
or  sacrificed  for  the  sake  of  the  others. 

Although  there  are  many  books  published  on 
vocal  matters  and  voice  culture,  there  still  exists 
a  need  for  a  popular  and  practical  guide  for  the 
singer  and  the  vocal  student. 

So  far  as  the  art  of  acting  or  mimicry  is  con- 
cerned, English  literature  is  lacking  in  any  im- 
portant work  on  the  subject.  And  mimicry  is 
of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  singer  and  has 
been  the  cause  of  75  per  cent  of  many  a  singer's 
success. 

The  art  of  make-up,  especially  in  modern 
times,  is  a  necessary  adjunct  to  the  art  of  acting. 

[vii] 


PREFACE 

No  works  of  any  importance  have  been  written 
on  this  art. 

By  giving  the  public  interested  in  vocal  mat- 
ters a  book  covering  the  three  principal  assets  of 
a  singer's  success,  I  am  hopeful  of  adding  to  the 
advancement  and  future  of  our  glorious  art  of 
singing. 

My  book  is  based  on  practical  experience  in, 
and  theoretical  analysis  of,  the  singer's  problems. 

I  feel  it  my  pleasant  duty  to  express  my  grati- 
tude to  many  of  my  artist  friends  whose  advice 
was  of  enormous  value  to  me  in  writing  this  book. 
Maestro  Vittorio  Vitone  was  my  most  valued 
collaborator  in  preparing  the  Italian  edition  of 
The  Singer  and  his  Art,  and  Miss  Laura 
Nemeth  aided  me  greatly  in  adapting  my  work 
to  the  requirements  of  the  American  public. 

T.  WRONSKI 

NEW  YORK 


[viiij 


CONTENTS 

PART  I 
THE  VOICE 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

INTRODUCTION      .              xv 

I.    FUNDAMENTALS           3 

Essentials  and  Individual  Characteristics  .       .  3 

Classification  of  the  Voice 8 

Male  Voices 12 

Female  Voices 12 

II.    GENERAL  CONSERVATION  OP  THE  VOICE       .       .  14 

Breathing 15 

Breathing  Exercises 22 

Development  of  Voice 25 

Interpretation  and  Expression     .        .       .       .  32 

The  Halls 42 

III.  VOICE     PLACING  —  DISCUSSION     OF     DEFECTIVE 

VOICES 44 

Defective  Voices 44 

Natural  Tone  Production 64 

Vocal  Hygiene  from  the  Musical  Point  of  View  68 

IV.  PECULIARITIES  OF  TONE  INCIDENT  TO  DIFFERENT 

NATIONALITIES 72 

V.  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE  OF  THE 

VOCAL  ORGANS  .......  88 

Anatomy 88 

Hygiene  of  Voice 97 

PART  II 
ACTING  AND  MIMICRY 

VI.    INTRODUCTION 113 

What  Is  Mimicry? 116 

[ix] 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Acting — Opera  and  Stage 116 

How  to  Study  and  Analyze  a  Part     .        .        .  119 

General  Rules 128 

VII.    ELEMENTS  OF  MIMICRY 135 

Gestures  of  the  Head 137 

The  Forehead  and  Eyebrows       ....  138 

The  Eyes .       .       .139 

The  Nose 142 

The  Mouth,  Lips,  Cheeks,  Chin  and  Jaw  .       .  142 

The  Kiss 144 

The  Ears 146 

The  Hair 146 

The  Arms  and  Hands 146 

Hand  and  Finger  Gestures 153 

The  Trunk  and  Breathing  Action       .        .        .  156 

The  Feet 156 

Walking 158 

Kneeling 162 

Manner  of  Being  Seated 162 

The  Salutation 164 

VIII.    EXPRESSIONS 166 

Expressions 169 

Pleasure  and  Pain 171 

The  Smile— the  Laugh 173 

Crying 176 

Love  in  Its  Different  States  and  Expressions  .  177 

Intellectual  and  Other  Expressions     .        .        .  180 

General  Expressions 196 

Effects  of  Pathological  States  on  the  Expres- 
sions            202 

PART  III 
"MAKE-UP" 

IX.    EVOLUTION  OF  "MAKE-UP" 211 

What  Is  "Make-Up"? 214 

Individuality  Submerged  in  a  Clever  "Make- 
Up"       215 

Application  and  Removal  of  "Make-Up"  .       .  217 

[x] 


CONTENTS 

APTER  PARE 

Fundamentals      | 220 

In  the  Dressing  Room 223 

Optical  Influence  and  Delusion  Through  Light- 
ing Effects 224 

The  Make-up  Box 227 

X.    DETAILS  OP  MAKE-UP       .               ....  230 

Beards  and  Mustaches 233 

The  Forehead 236 

The  Eyes,  Eyelashes,  Eyebrows  .        .       .       .238 

The  Cheeks 243 

The  Nose 244 

The  Ear 247 

The  Mouth 247 

The  Teeth 250 

The  Chin 250 

The  Neck 251 

The  Arms,  Hands,  Fingers  and  Nails        .       .  254 

The  Feet  and  Legs                .       ^       .        .       .  256 

Paddings          ........  256 

How  to  Increase  and  Decrease  Height       .        .  2517 

Youth,  Maturity,  Old  Age 258 

Imitation  of  Effects  Produced  by  Sickness     .  259 
Changing  the  Color  of  the  Skin  .        .       .       .260 

Album-Diary 261 

INDEX  263 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURB  PAGE 

1.  Diagram  showing  the  development  of  the  breath- 

ing apparatus 1.6 

2.  Exercises  for  respiration 24 

3.  Various  openings  of  the  mouth  in  singing   .         .  38 

4.  Theoretical  sound 49 

5.  Singing  on  the  timbre   .         .         .         .                  .  50 

6.  Chest  voice 54 

7.  Dark  or  deep  voice 55 

8.  Hollow  or  cavernous  voice    .....  56 

9.  Backward  voice 57 

10.  Throaty  voice 58 

11.  Smothered   voice 59 

12.  Yawning  or  gaping  voice 60 

13.  Nasal   voice 60 

14.  White    voice 62 

15.  Forward    voice 65 

16.  Full  voice .67 

17.  Elementary  dancing  exercises        .         .         .         .132 

18.  Looks 140 

19-  Some  gestures  of  the  mouth  .         .         .145 

20.  Command 147 

21.  Menace 148 

22.  Silence 149 

23.  Horror 150 

24.  Begging 151 

25.  Supplication 152 

[xiii] 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE  PAGE 

26.  Some  of  the  gestures  of  the  hand        .         .         .154 

27.  Different  ways  of  walking 160 

28.  Different  manners  of  being  seated      .         .         .163 

29.  Muscles  used  in  facial  mimicry    .         .         .         .167 

30.  Pain 172 

31.  The  smile  and  laugh 175 

32.  Attention  of  the  eye 179 

33.  Painful  concentration 180 

34.  Admiration 182 

35.  Meditation 183 

36.  Reflection 184 

37.  Attention  .        . 185 

38.  Fear 186 

39-  Horror      .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .187 

40.  Terror 188 

41.  Rage 191 

42.  Anger 193 

43.  Defiance .        .         .194 

44.  Disdain .         .         .195 

45.  Irony 197 

46.  Irony 198 

47.  Arrogance 200 

48.  Hypocrisy 201 

49.  How  to  apply  the  beard  and  mustache        .         .      233 

50.  Different  forms  of  beards  and  mustaches   .         .      235 

51.  Different  forms  of  eyebrows         .         .         .         .241 

52.  Different   forms  of  noses 245 

53.  Molding  of  the   nose 246 

54.  Changing   the   mouth 249 

55.  Signor  Wronski  as  Mephistopheles      .         .         .      252 

56.  Signor  Wronski  as   Lothario         ....      253 

57.  A   diagram   showing  the   gradual  application  of 

rouge 258 

[xiv] 


INTRODUCTION 

"To  sing,  three  things  are  necessary,  and  they  are  Voice,  Voice, 
Voice." — R  ossi  N  i. 

"A  donkey  also  has  a  voice." — SIM.  MAYR. 

"Sing  on  the  interest,  and  conserve  the  capital  of  the  voice." 
— RUBIXI. 

In  1562,  a  modest  Italian  vocal  teacher,  Maf- 
fei,  published  a  few  letters  regarding  the  voice 
and  its  culture.  He  seems  to  have  given  the  start 
to  a  horde  of  writers,  and  our  generation  is  heir 
to  a  very  rich  literature  on  the  subject.  Unfor- 
tunately, in  this  literature  we  find  a  quantity  of 
ideas,  some  of  them  remarkable,  some  of  them 
practical  and  adaptable,  but  we  also  find  the  ma- 
jority of  those  ideas  in  conflict  with  each  other. 
The  only  point  on  which  these  vocal  writers, 
teachers,  physicians  and  orators  seem  to  agree  is 
that  the  vocal  tone  is  the  result  of  air  coming 
from  the  lungs,  passing  through  the  vocal  cords, 
thus  producing  sound.  Most  of  them  also  agree 
that  singing  and  speaking  are  but  modulations  of 
the  same  function.  But  the  fundamental  ques- 
tions of  breathing,  registers,  etc.,  are  differently 
analyzed  and  described  by  the  various  authors, 
with  the  inevitable  consequence  of  variety  in  re- 

[XV] 


INTRODUCTION 

suits.  We  find  methods  in  which  the  whole  vocal 
education  is  based  upon  one  system  of  breath 
control.  One  is  told  that  the  vocal  range  is  di- 
vided into  registers,  some  teachers  advocating 
two,  some  three,  some  four.  Conflicting  theories 
also  exist  as  to  the  relative  distribution  of  work 
to  the  vocal  cords  and  resonators.  One  advises 
the  coup  de  glotte  (glottis  stroke)  in  the  vocal 
attack.  Another  is  absolutely  opposed  to  this 
idea.  In  other  words,  that  which  Mr.  X  recom- 
mends, Mr.  Y  rejects.  That  which  the  singer 
compiles  in  a  book  is  rejected  by  the  throat  spe- 
cialist who,  with  the  aid  of  the  laryngoscope, 
claims  to  have  found  the  one  and  only  true 
method.  Who  suffers  from  all  these  experiments 
and  more  or  less  wild  guesses?  First,  the  youth- 
ful student !  Second,  the  art  itself ! 

In  spite  of  contentions  to  the  contrary,  I  claim 
that  our  generation  possesses  much  more  talent 
for  musical  art  than  was  evidenced  at  any  previ- 
ous period.  I  see  no  reason  to  believe  that  the 
voices  of  the  singers  of  the  present  are  poorer 
than  were  the  voices  of  the  sjngers  of  the  last  two 
centuries.  Our  intellectual  development,  our 
general  education,  our  musical  sense  are  all  much 
more  advanced  than  before, — and  certainly  there 
is  no  less  amount  of  human  material  available. 
Still  it  seems  an  undeniable  fact  that  in  spite  of 

[xvi] 


INTRODUCTION 

the  abundance  of  talent,  really  great  singers  are 
becoming  more  and  more  scarce,  and  operatic 
managers  to-day  have  great  difficulty  in  replac- 
ing passing  celebrities.  What  is  the  reason? 

Modern  music  is  to  a  certain  extent  responsi- 
ble for  this  decadence  in  art.  It  offers  more  fa- 
cilities for  a  premature  but  generally  short  career. 
The  present  day  theatrical  manager  could  be 
rightly  called  the  greatest  enemy  of  a  young 
voice.  He  is  far  oftener  the  possessor  of  an  eye 
to  business  than  of  an  ear  for  music.  Hearing  a 
good  voice,  especially  one  which  has  a  few  natu- 
ral high  notes,  he  engages  the  immature  talent 
and  exploits  it  to  full  capacity.  The  result  is 
complete  ruin  in  a  short  time,  for  an  unprepared 
or  wrongly  trained  voice  cannot  long  sustain  the 
heavy  work  of  modern  opera.  Thus  the  unfor- 
tunate singers  lose  their  voices,  aspirations, 
dreams,  ambitions, — sometimes  even  their  health, 
—all  in  an  effort  to  enrich  the  pocket  of  the  specu- 
lator. The  present  standard  of  vocal  teaching  in 
the  world  has  also  very  much  to  answer  for  in 
this  respect.  But  my  purpose  is  not  to  analyze 
teachers'  consciences  or  abilities.  It  is  the  voice 
with  which  I  am  concerned. 

At  the  head  of  this  introduction  you  find  three 
quotations:  one  by  Rossini,  who  played  such  an 
important  part  in  the  development  of  the  great 

[xvii] 


Italian  operatic  singing;  one  by  Mayr,  who  was 
the  teacher  of  Donizetti  and  as  great  an  author- 
ity on  music  and  voice  as  any  of  his  time;  and 
one  by  Rubini,  the  great  Italian  tenor,  whose 
name  is  immortal  in  the  history  of  Italian  bel 
canto.  Rossini  claims  that  to  be  a  singer,  natural 
vocal  qualities  are  necessary.  Mayr  asserts  that 
intelligence  is  of  just  as  great  importance.  Ru- 
bini advises  work  and  study  which  will  develop  a 
person's  artistic  qualities  with  a  certain  sense  of 
economy, — a  process  tending  to  avoid  the  ex- 
posure of  vocal  organs  to  any  kind  of  overwork 
(forcing). 

Accepting  the  views  of  the  above  masters,  and 
considering  the  present  requirements  of  vocal  art, 
one  easily  will  realize  that  to  become  a  singer  a 
person  first  and  foremost  must  have  a  voice,  for 
nobody  as  yet  has  succeeded  in  fooling  Nature  by 
creating  something  out  of  nothing.  The  aspir- 
ant, then,  must  have  intelligence,  patience, — for 
notwithstanding  the  speed  of  the  times  so  elo- 
quently represented  by  commercialism  in  every- 
thing, not  excluding  art,  no  financial  provision  is 
made  for  the  maintenance  of  students  during  the 
time  of  necessary  preparation, — and,  in  addition, 
there  must  be  a  willingness  to  work  and  a  per- 
sonality that  will  permit  the  expression  of  artistic 
imagination  and  interpretation. 

[xviii] 


INTRODUCTION 

Most  of  the  theories  set  forth  in  this  book  are 
adapted  from  the  teachings  of  the  great  Italian 
masters  of  the  last  two  centuries,  such  as  Flori- 
mo,  Tosi,  Bernacchi,  Gervasoni  and  Porpora. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  these  same  theories  are  ex- 
pounded (and,  of  course,  much  more  fully  and 
scientifically)  by  the  modern  writers,  Labus, 
Bonnier,  Guetta,  Nuvoli,  and  others.  Especially 
notable  in  this  regard  is  the  case  of  Dr.  Pierre 
Bonnier,  whose  many  works  rest  upon  the  firm 
foundation  of  a  most  logical  and  practical  analy- 
sis of  the  voice.  With  marvelous  ability  Dr. 
Bonnier  depicts  the  conceptions  of  the  old  mas- 
ters, and  I  have  found  his  treatment  of  the  sub- 
ject so  complete,  his  reasoning  so  strong,  as  to 
have  been  a  wonderful  inspiration  to  me,  for  he 
succeeded  in  banishing  all  the  doubts  from  my 
mind, — doubts  which  can  rather  be  expected  in 
the  mind  of  one  who,  by  reason  of  false  teaching, 
has  been  forced  eight  times  to  alter  his  method 
of  singing. 

It  is  not  my  wish  that  this  book  should  be  con- 
sidered as  outlining  a  method  of  singing,  for  it 
does  not.  Fundamental  concepts  in  art  are  in- 
deed universal;  but  their  application  is  quite  a 
different  matter.  It  is,  without  a  doubt,  possible 
to  describe  the  exact  results  it  is  desired  to  at- 
tain. It  is  also  possible  to  describe  many  differ- 

[xix] 


INTRODUCTION 

ent  ways  of  bringing  about  such  results, — BUT 
inasmuch  as  there  are  no  two  things  exactly  alike 
in  this  world  of  ours,  how  can  one  lay  down  hard 
and  fast  rules  (commonly  called  "method") 
which  will  apply  to  all  alike  ? 

Individualities  are  all  necessarily  different.  In 
vocal  study  the  methods  employed  must  by  this 
very  token  be  varied,  modified,  altered  as  need 
be  to  get  the  desired  artistic  results,  which  latter 
may  well  be  described  as  the  highest  develop- 
ment of  artistic  originality. 

In  this  work  I  have  tried  conscientiously  to 
concentrate  everything  of  urgent  interest  to  those 
ambitious  to  become  singers.  I  have  endeavored 
to  apply  the  years  of  my  theoretical  study  and 
practical  experience  on  the  stage  and  in  teaching 
to  the  solution  of  the  problems  which  daily  con- 
front the  vocal  aspirant.  I  have  carefully  avoided 
any  original  experimentation,  for  I  fully  realize 
the  great  harm  done  by  divergence  from  soundly 
tested  fundamentals.  I  have  not  departed  from 
the  scientific  principles  exemplified  in  the  work 
of  all  really  great  artists. 


[xx] 


The 
SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 


PART  I 
THE  VOICE 


THE  SINGER 
AND  HIS  ART 

CHAPTER  I 

FUNDAMENTALS 

Naturalness. — The  art  of  singing  is  the  most 
intricate  of  any,  and  yet  the  most  simple.  In 
other  words,  while  the  cultivated  artist  will  find 
plenty  of  use  for  all  his  intelligence  and  his  years 
of  education,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that  his  or 
her  work  is  really  great  in  proportion  as  it  ap- 
proaches naturalness. 

ESSENTIALS  AND  INDIVIDUAL 
CHARACTERISTICS 

The  cultivation  of  the  singing  voice  presents, 
at  once,  two  obvious  but  distinct  propositions: 

1.  The  essential  requirements,  as  manifested 
by  the  standard  of  the  world's  leading  artists. 

2.  The      individual      characteristics,      vocal 
(physiological)    and   mental,    of   the   ambitious 
singer. 

[3] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

Essentials. — Ignorance  on  the  part  of  the 
singer  of  either  the  exact  demands  of  the  art  or 
his  own  personal  qualifications  and  attributes 
may  result  in  complete  failure  and  disappoint- 
ment. 

The  proposition  that  at  the  very  outset  con- 
fronts teacher  and  pupil  is  to  find  ways  and 
means  whereby  the  individual  characteristics  of 
the  pupil  may  be  adapted  to  the  demands  of  the 
art. 

Individuality. — Vocal,  temperamental  and 
educational  qualities  are  possessed  by  different 
persons  in  different  degrees,  the  composite  pre- 
sented by  each  student  constituting  his  or  her  in- 
dividuality. Obviously,  as  before  stated,  it  is 
impossible  to  create  a  method  of  singing  which 
would  apply  to  all  subjects  alike. 

For  example:  The  attempts  of  many  tenors 
to  sing  "a  la  immortal  Caruso"  have  resulted  in 
the  complete  ruin  of  their  voices.  The  individu- 
ality of  Caruso  was  his  and  his  alone,  and  could 
not  be  duplicated  by  subjects  with  different  vo- 
cal apparatus,  temperament,  etc.  In  any  event, 
if  it  were  possible  to  copy  a  great  singer, 
the  copy  would  be  as  little  like  the  origi- 
nal (and  as  valueless)  as  a  photographic 
print  is  like  the  original  oil  painting  it 
represents.  To  start  one's  career  in  the 

.[4] 


FUNDAMENTALS 

endeavor  to  duplicate  somebody  else's  individual- 
ity is  to  kill  the  best  that  is  in  the  student,  his 
own  individuality,  which,  properly  cultivated, 
may  create  a  new  type  on  the  singing  stage.  In 
a  profession  where  novelty  and  individuality  are 
the  chief  attributes  of  success,  hampering  the 
expression  of  individuality  amounts  to  nothing 
else  than  disaster — perhaps  "crime"  would  be  a 
more  fitting  word,  since  the  disaster  does  not  hap- 
pen to  the  perpetrator. 

How  Individuality  Is  Ruined. — The  chief 
beauty  of  a  fine  voice  is  its  individuality.  If  any 
of  us  can  recall  his  kindergarten  days,  he  will  re- 
member how  crude  was  the  singing  of  the  kin- 
dergarten teacher,  and  how  involuntarily,  one 
might  say,  all  the  children  imitated  the  vocal  pe- 
culiarities of  the  teacher,  for  children  have  a  keen 
sense  of  imitation.  Thus  it  can  easily  be  seen 
that  vocal  displacement  may  start  in  early  child- 
hood. 

In  later  life,  we  will  say,  children  attend 
church,  sing  hymns  with  the  rest  of  the  congrega- 
tion, or  perhaps  belong  to  the  choir.  Trying  to 
do  as  the  others  do  breaks  down  individuality. 
So,  when  it  comes  to  the  time  when  vocal  cul- 
tivation is  desired,  it  is  found  that  the  voice  is 
more  or  less  deformed ;  in  other  words,  unnatural 
to  that  individual. 

[5] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

Imitation  in  Singing  (The  Ideal  of  Tone) . — 
Assuming  the  preceding  paragraph  to  be  true, 
we  can  easily  understand  that  individuality  is 
the  greatest  asset.  This  statement  is  sufficient 
to  condemn  the  method  of  teaching  through 
imitation,  which  has  many  followers,  especially 
among  the  teacher-singers,  who  may  sincerely 
believe  in  the  advantages  of  that  method. 

In  instrumental  music,  there  are,  for  instance, 
the  Wagnerian  and  Rossinian  schools.  It  is  true 
that  the  imitations  of  those  great  works  fall  far 
short  of  the  originals.  But  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  works  of  composers  of  instrumen- 
tal music  remain  for  posterity,  just  as  do  the 
books  of  the  poets  and  the  paintings  of  the  paint- 
ers, and  that  all  are  the  subject  of  imitation;  yet 
the  singer's  or  instrumentalist's  art  dies  with  him. 

A  painter  may  paint  somewhat  like  Raphael, 
Michelangelo  or  Rembrandt;  a  composer  may 
write  after  the  style  of  Wagner,  Chopin  or  Bee- 
thoven, but  a  singer  cannot  sing  as  did  Rubini, 
Pasta,  Malibran  or  Patti. 

The  phonograph  may,  to  a  certain  degree,  give 
to  our  future  generations  an  idea  of  how  our  op- 
eratic stars  sang,  but  with  all  my  respectful  ad- 
miration for  this  wonderful  invention,  I  do  not 
highly  estimate  the  value  of  so-called  tone  re- 
production when  the  singer's  art  must  be  sub- 

[6] 


FUNDAMENTALS 

ordinated  to  a  series  of  mechanical  processes. 

A  phonographic  record  of  a  great  artist  will 
be  of  value  to  a  student  in  developing  his  artistic 
point  of  view,  his  musical  sense,  his  grasp  of 
rhythm,  his  pronunciation  of  foreign  tongues, 
but  will  prove  disastrous  should  the  student  at- 
tempt to  imitate  the  singer's  tone,  deformed  by 
and  subordinated  to  mechanical  necessities. 

The  ranks  of  our  teachers  consist  mostly  of 
pianists  and  organists  unable  to  sing,  or  of  un- 
fortunate singers  who  are  themselves  victims  of 
the  same  incompetency  which  they  are  perhaps 
innocently  perpetuating  in  their  pupils. 

There  is  still  another  kind  or  class  of  teach- 
ers— namely,  those  who  have  the  greatest  right 
to  teach — singers  who  have  been  great  and 
famous  in  their  time.  They  should  not  ask  their 
pupils  to  imitate  their  tones,  for  young  throats 
cannot  without  danger  attempt  to  reproduce  the 
worn  tones  of  a  passe  artist. 

In  nature  everything  has  its  birth,  growth,  full 
development — decay.  The  vocal  student  should 
only  study  voices  at  their  best — not  to  imitate 
them,  as  individuality  is  the  first  attribute  of  suc- 
cess, but  as  vocal  and  interpretative  standards 
by  which  to  gauge  his  own  progress. 

A  painter  develops  in  his  brain  a  picture  in 
color;  a  poet  idealizes  a  picture  in  words;  a  com- 

[7] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

poser  depicts  in  musical  sound.  The  singer  must 
interpret  all  the  poet  and  the  composer  have  writ- 
ten. And  just  as  the  words  or  the  melody  were 
inspired,  so  the  singer's  tone  must  also  first  be 
created  by  the  brain.  The  vocal  machinery  will 
then  act  in  the  same  inspirational  manner  as  does 
the  hand  of  the  painter  when  reproducing  his 
thoughts  on  the  canvas.  If  the  imagination  form 
a  beautiful  tone,  the  voice  will  doubtless  repro- 
duce it.  This  is  the  only  form  of  imitation  wor- 
thy of  cultivation. 

We  learn  from  the  books  that  the  old  Italian 
masters  cultivated  in  their  pupils  the  sense  of 
beauty  in  tone,  and  that  sense  was  the  dictating 
power  in  the  periods  of  canto  fiorito  and  bel 
canto. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  VOICE 

In  classifying  a  voice,  it  is  essential  to  con- 
sider particularly 

1.  The  range. 

2.  The  timbre  (quality). 

3.  Vocal  temperament. 

In  determining  the  range,  care  must  be  taken 
to  keep  it  within  easy  limits ;  in  other  words,  con- 
sider only  so  much  of  the  scale  as  is  taken  natu- 
rally, without  straining.  In  cases  where  the  voice 

[8] 


FUNDAMENTALS 

has  not  been  forced  out  of  natural  shape,  this  is 
a  comparatively  simple  matter. 

A  cut  glass  cup,  under  the  friction  of  the  fingers,  will  give  out 
tone,  yet  by  rubbing  it  very  hard  the  sound  ceases  altogether,  from 
which  we  conclude  that  the  strongest  sound  obtainable  is  due  to 
just  sufficient  friction  to  secure  ample  vibration  of  the  crystal, 
without  preventing  the  freedom  of  vibration.  It  is  necessary, 
then,  that  the  crystal  vibrate  freely  under  the  friction.  That 
liberty  of  vibration  of  its  tonal  walla  is  the  essential  condition 
to  the  production  of  maximum  and  most  beautiful  tone  (Bonnier). 

This  is  a  point  having  distinct  application  to 
vocal  study. 

The  Range  is  the  quantity  of  notes  the  voice 
can  reach  comfortably  and  musically.  From 
low  to  high  the  tones  increase  in  rapidity  of  vi- 
bration. The  more  rapid  the  rate  of  vibration, 
the  higher  the  pitch.  The  rapid  vibrations  be- 
yond certain  limits  give  out  no  sound  susceptible 
to  human  ears.  The  number  of  vibrations  in 
musical  sounds  ranges  from  forty  to  four  thou- 
sand a  second. 

Blaserna  gives  the  following  limits  of  vibra- 
tion in  a  human  voice: 


Normal 

Exceptional 

Bass 
Baritone 
Tenor 
Contralto 
M.  Sopr. 
Soprano 

C  -  -  82  D  293 
F  -  -  87  FJf  370 
B—  109  A  435 
E  —  164  F  696 
F  —  174  A  870 
A  —  218  C  1044 

B  (Contra)     6l  —  F      348 
D                       73  —  G     392 
G                      98  —  C*    5-14 
C                     110  —  A      870 
E                   164—  B      876 
G                   196  —  E    1305 
and  more 

[9] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

The  Timbre  or  Quality. — The  variation  in 
the  timbre  of  two  voices  of  the  same  range  may 
necessitate  classifying  them  differently. 

What  Is  "Timbre?" — Musical  sounds  are  not 
simple,  but  compound — each  note  consists  of  a 
fundamental  set  of  vibrations  which  determine 
the  pitch,  and  of  a  number  of  superadded  vibra- 
tions which  indicate  the  "timbre"  or  "quality" 
(Helmholtz). 

Take,  for  example,  different  instruments — 
Fundamental  "A"  is  the  same  on  all  of  them,  but 
the  superadded  sounds  are  different  and  those 
are  the  ones  that  give  timbre  or  quality  to  the 
tone. 

The  timbre  of  a  voice,  being  part  of  one's  or- 
ganic constitution,  cannot  be  changed. 

This  does  not  mean  that  a  harsh,  hard  voice, 
made  so  by  faulty  method,  may  not  be  greatly 
improved  in  tonal  effects  by  careful  analysis  and 
teaching.  But  as  the  timbre  and  quality  of  a 
voice  is  at  bottom  a  part  of  the  individual's  nat- 
ural make-up,  it  is  obvious  that  no  other  can  be 
substituted,  however  much  it  may  be  attempted 
or  desired.  But  the  best  that  is  in  a  voice  can  be 
secured,  with  the  result  that  one  at  times  is 
tempted  to  believe  that  nature's  gifts  really  have 
been  improved  upon.  The  real  fact  of  the  mat- 
ter is,  of  course,  that  the  faulty  conditions  which 

[10] 


FUNDAMENTALS 

have  hitherto  prevented  proper  results  are  re- 
moved, and  the  natural  beauties  of  the  voice  shine 
forth.  Timbre,  like  the  individuality  of  which 
it  is  but  a  part,  may  be  distorted  and  sup- 
pressed. By  proper  methods  it  may  also  be  re- 
stored and  expressed. 

Vocal  Temperament. — Not  of  the  least  im- 
portance in  the  classification  of  the  voice  is  " 'vocal 
temperament.3' 

Just  as  there  are  no  two  living  persons  pos- 
sessing exactly  the  same  character,  there  are  no 
two  singers  of  like  musical  or  vocal  temperament. 
One  singer  will  grasp  mentally  and  vocally  with 
ease  what  may  be  extremely  difficult  for  another. 
Such  combinations  constitute  what,  for  want  of  a 
better  description,  may  be  called  "vocal  tempera- 
ment." 

As  an  illustration  of  what  happens  when  vocal 
temperament  is  disregarded,  imagine  "La  Donna 
e  mobile"  sung  an  octave  lower  by  a  heavy  bass, 
or  a  heavy  mezzo-soprano  aria  from  "Samson 
and  Delilah"  sung  by  a  light  soprano. 

The  general  character  of  a  person  is  a  tre- 
mendous factor  in  his  or  her  vocal  temperament, 
all  of  which  also  indicates  what  a  complex  thing 
is  individuality  in  singing,  and  how  impossible 
and  fatal  it  is  to  endeavor  to  develop  any  two 
voices  by  exactly  the  same  processes. 

[11] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

Proceeding  from  low  to  high,  the  voices  are 
classified  as  follows: 

MALE  VOICES 

Basses,  divided  into  three  classes: 

Profondo  (deep,  noble,  contra),  in  which 
the  greatest  sonority  obtains  in  the  low 
range. 

Cantante  (bass-baritone),  showing  better  so- 
nority in  the  high  range. 

Buffo,  usually   a  poor  voice,   suitable  for 

comedy  only. 
Baritones,  divided  into  two  classes: 

Dramatic  (very  similar  to  basso  cantante). 

Lyric,  or  Verdi's  type. 
Tenors,  divided  into  three  classes: 

Dramatic,  or  very  strong. 

Semi-dramatic  (Lirico  spinto). 

Lyric,  or  light. 

FEMALE  VOICES 

Contralto,  having  a  marked  baritonal  char- 
acter. (None  of  this  extreme  type  is  on  the  stage 
at  present. ) 

Alto  or  Mezzo-Soprano,  the  link  between  con- 
tralto and  soprano  voices. 

Dramatic  Soprano,  one  who  indicates  the 
greatest  sonority  and  strength  in  the  high  range. 

[12] 


FUNDAMENTALS 

Lyric  Soprano,  lacking  the  strength  of  a  dra- 
matic voice.  (This  voice  could  be  called  the 
product  of  modern  music.) 

Coloratura  Soprano,  a  virtuoso  voice.  (This 
should  be  placed  in  a  class  by  itself.) 


CHAPTER  II 

GENERAL  CONSERVATION  OF  THE  VOICE 

Proper  classification  of  a  voice  (in  some  cases 
when  quality  or  testiture  is  injured  and  abused) 
may  take  weeks  or  even  months.  It  is  necessary 
to  let  the  voice  grow  normally  in  strength,  in 
extent,  in  beauty,  in  plasticity — each  branch  of 
the  restorative  process  taking  its  proper  time. 
To  cultivate  vocal  strength  without  amplitude 
(breadth  and  depth),  for  example,  is  to  con- 
demn the  voice  by  continued  effort  to  fatal  de- 
formity, breaking  the  harmony  of  vocal  accom- 
modation and  upsetting  the  physiological  plan. 
The  same  is  also  true  of  the  other  qualities  of  the 
vocal  tone. 

There  is  no  danger  in  developing  the  ampli- 
tude of  the  voice,  because  the  amplitude  works 
only  with  a  free  voice.  It  consists  in  accommo- 
dating the  resonating  walls  in  a  fashion  that  per- 
mits singing  "carryingly"  and  grandly.  The 
voice  becomes  powerful  and  large  without  local 
effort,  without  constriction,  and  soars  to  the  dis- 
tance desired.  Only  thus  is  it  possible  to  obtain 

[14] 


perfect  harmony  and  equilibrium  among  all  parts 
of  the  vocal  machinery. 

Breathing,  intensity,  range,  quality  or  timbre 
and  expression  are  the  fundamentals  of  a  fine 
voice;  therefore  I  shall  analyze  them  separately. 
But — a  warning — the  order  and  measure  in  which 
they  should  be  applied  must  be  left  to  the  con- 
scientious teacher,  for  it  depends  entirely  upon 
each  pupil's  individuality  and  vocal  peculiarities. 

A  starting  point,  so  to  say,  in  the  adjustment 
and  development  of  the  voice  is  indicated  by  a 
French  scientist,  Dr.  Pierre  Bonnier  (in  a  way 
which  I  consider  exactly  right  and  logical) : 
The  singer  should  know  that  he  is  singing  not  for 
himself  but  for  others,  that  others  must  hear  and 
understand  him.  The  voice  of  a  singer  must  first 
of  all  have  enough  carrying  power  to  fill  the  hall 
and  be  heard  equally  well  by  the  entire  audience, 
and  there  is  only  one  way  to  obtain  that  power — 
the  singer  must  project  his  voice  to  a  distance, 
and  must  learn  to  hear  his  voice  at  the  place 
where  others  hear  it. 

I  shall  often  return  to  this  point. 

BREATHING 

No  element  in  the  production  of  the  human 
voice  has  been  the  subject  of  so  much  attention 
and  contention  as  has  breathing.  It  has  been 

[15] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

specialized  upon  and  magnified  out  of  all  pro- 
portion to  its  relative  importance.  To  note  the 
piles  of  literature  that  have  accumulated  one 


B 


FIG.  1. — Diagram  showing  the  development  of  the  breathing  ap- 
paratus in  a  growing  man  and  a  woman  with  corsets.  This  simple 
drawing  proves  how  ridiculous  and  fatal  must  be  the  application 
of  the  same  method  of  breathing  to  man  and  woman  alike.  Unfor- 
tunately, this  system,  under  the  name  of  breath  control,  is  prac- 
ticed very  largely  and  also  disastrously  to-day. 

would  think  that  none  but  those  lucky  enough  to 
visit  "Professor  X"  had  ever  learned  to  draw  a 
full  breath  for  any  purpose.  And  yet  breathing 

[16] 


CONSERVATION  OF  THE  VOICE 

correctly  is  perhaps  the  most  common  thing  in 
the  world. 

Why,  then,  all  the  trouble  and  talk  and  build- 
ing up  of  special  systems  of  breathing  for  use  in 
singing? 

Without  wishing  to  give  unnecessary  space  to 
a  discussion  of  those  in  every  line  of  work  whose 
love  for  the  almighty  dollar  leads  to  almost  every 
advertising  misrepresentation,  it  must  be  noted 
in  passing  that  unfortunately  there  are  plenty 
such  to  plague  the  sacred  art  of  voice  culture. 
Yet,  to  the  credit  of  the  teaching  profession  be  it 
said,  the  great  majority  of  those  vocal  teachers 
who  specialize  on  the  element  of  breathing  do  so 
because  they  conscientiously  believe  they  are 
right  about  it. 

For  the  purpose  of  clarity  it  is  necessary  to  dissect  the 
breathing  process  into  three  distinct  physiological  func- 
tions : 

1.  The  mixture  of  gaseous  matters  exchanged  between 
the  air  and  the  blood,  said   function  essential  for  under- 
standing from  standpoint  of  chemistry,  but  of  no  interest 
as  a  matter  of  phonetics. 

2.  This  is  a  reflective  function,  one  that  originates  the 
above  said  interchange  of  matters,  but  admits  the  air  into 
the  organism.     This  second  function  also  does  not  have  any 
direct  importance  upon  the  matter  of  controlled  phonetics. 
We  will  not  analyze  either  of  the  first  two  functions. 

3.  The    voluntary    breathing    or    respiratory     gesture. 
This  is  the  only  point  that  interests  singers. 

Observation  of  the  breathing  of  noted  singers  permits 
the  classification  of  their  method  of  breathing  as  a  real 

[17] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

gesture  of  the  thorax,  a  gesture  very  complicated,  engaging 
a  large  number  of  muscles  and  cavities. 

It  is  a  well  recognized  fact  that  the  amplitude  of  the 
thorax  is  diminished  or  increased  according  to  different 
positions  of  the  body.  Lying  on  the  back,  side,  or  stomach, 
raising  the  arm,  crossing  the  hands,  carrying  a  package 
under  the  arms,  all  these  movements  affect  more  or  less  the 
action  of  the  breathing  apparatus. 

These  different  ways  of  breathing  are  effected  by  the 
voluntary  (or  involuntary,  as  in  sleep)  contraction  and  ex- 
pansion of  different  groups  of  muscles.  What  is  essentially 
to  be  noticed  is  that  the  functioning  of  the  muscles  con- 
cerned, be  it  in  the  act  of  inhalation  ("in-breathing,"  the 
immission  of  air  into  the  lungs)  or  in  the  exhalation  ("out- 
breathing,"  expulsion  of  the  air  from  the  lungs),  is  prac- 
tically automatic.  Ordinarily  we  do  not  think  of  it  in  the 
least.  Our  own  will  has  nothing  to  do  with  it  unless  we 
make  a  special  effort,  as  in  holding  the  breath  for  short  or 
long  phrases  in  singing. 

In  normal  respiration  the  mouth  should  be  closed.  It 
should  be  used  for  breathing  only  when  the  nasal  passages 
are  out  of  order,  or  in  case  of  necessity  for  quick  respira- 
tion, as  in  singing. 

Perhaps  a  discussion  of  the  subject  from  an 
entirely  different  angle  may  not  be  amiss  here. 

It  was  the  author's  good  fortune  a  short  time 
ago  to  be  returning  from  a  European  tour  with 
many  of  the  world's  leading  opera  singers. 
Upon  the  trip  over,  the  Italian  edition  of  this 
little  work  repeatedly  became  the  subject  of  dis- 
cussion. That  the  general  consensus  of  such  ex- 
pert opinion  was  in  conformity  with  the  author's 
views  is  shown  by  the  photographed  indorsement 
by  those  artists  which  appear  at  the  beginning  of 

[18] 


CONSERVATION  OF  THE  VOICE 

this  English  edition.  I  may  be  pardoned  for 
mentioning  this,  perhaps,  when  I  draw  to  your 
attention  my  reason  for  doing  so.  Years  ago, 
when  Adelina  Patti  (whose  stellar  magnitude 
needs  no  praise  from  me)  was  asked  how  she  pro- 
duced her  flawless  tones,  she  answered  simply 
ffJe  ne  sais  pas"  (I  don't  know) .  Would  you  be 
surprised  to  hear  that  each  of  the  group  of  fa- 
mous opera  singers  to  whom  I  put  the  query, 
"Tell  me  what  method  you  use  in  breathing?"  an- 
swered, as  if  by  agreement,  practically  in  Patti's 
own  words. 

What,  then,  is  the  logical  explanation  of  this 
apparent  contradiction  between  the  world's  best 
singers  and  the  general  run  of  vocal  teachers  ? 

The  answer  is  simply  this:  The  proper  way 
to  teach  and  learn  tone  production  is  through  the 
tone  itself.  Tone  is  the  product  of  many  ele- 
ments,— true ;  but  those  elements  are  the  insepar- 
able parts  of  one  result,  all  working  simultane- 
ously and  in  perfect  balance,  each  with  the  rest,— 
and  that  result  is  the  tone  itself.  Like  a  violin, 
the  instrument  is  there,  ready  to  give  forth  a  mu- 
sical tone.  All  it  needs  is  the  hand  of  a  master 
on  the  bow.  From  the  same  instrument  the  tyro 
will  bring  forth  a  noise  which  would  rasp  every 
nerve  in  one's  body.  But  the  violin  is  there, — 
it  does  not  have  to  be  dissected  or  constructed. 

[19] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

So  with  the  human  instrument.  It  is  there. 
All  parts  of  the  apparatus  are  but  contributory 
to  the  general  result.  Nature  simply  demands 
a  balance. 

Now  we  reach  the  rather  technical  part  of  the 
subject,  namely,  how  to  secure  that  balance  in 
case  some  of  the  elements  be  over  or  under  con- 
tributing, as  shown  by  the  poor  tone  pro- 
duced. 

Again  turning  to  the  violin  for  illustrative  pur- 
poses,— and  it  must  not  be  overlooked  that  it  is 
well  recognized  that  in  the  hands  of  a  real  master 
the  violin's  tone  is  the  nearest  thing  to  the  human 
voice  known  to  the  world, — suppose  the  body  of 
the  violin  be  stuffed  with  cotton,  what  happens? 
The  tone  brought  forth  is  worthless.  Why?  The 
sound  foundation  is  missing, — there  is  no  body 
for  the  tone  and  consequently  no  body  to  the 
tone. 

All  that  the  singer  needs  to  know  about 
breathing  in  singing  is  to  keep  the  sound  body 
open, — or,  at  least,  keep  the  sensation  of  so 
maintaining  it,  even  though  at  the  end  of  a  long 
phrase  the  very  last  particle  of  breath  may  have 
been  used  up.  In  this  one  point  lies  practically 
all  there  is  to  breath  control  in  singing.  Of 
course  it  is  quite  another  thing  to  balance  the 
working  of  this  one  component  of  a  good  tone 

[20] 


CONSERVATION  OF  THE  VOICE 

with  all  the  other  elements, — but  that  is  the  whole 
art  of  tone  production,  and  it  is  impossible  of  ac- 
quisition except  under  the  watchful  eye  and  ear 
of  a  first-class  teacher,  combined  with  the  ear- 
nest, thoughtful  and  unremitting  effort  of  a 
pupil  with  a  worth-while  voice  and  good  health. 
It  goes  without  saying,  of  course,  that  you  can- 
not get  a  good  tone  from  a  violin  unless  you  have 
an  instrument  capable  of  producing  a  good 
tone. 

Nothing  truer  in  connection  with  vocal  study 
was  ever  said  than  that  "singing,  after  all,  is  a 
mental  attitude"  It  follows  that  if  the  mental- 
ity be  absorbed  in  a  progression  of  physical  func- 
tions which,  all  combined,  will  make  a  good  tone, 
there  is  nothing  simultaneous  or  well  balanced 
in  the  result.  The  proper  coordination  of  the 
tone-producing  elements  can  be  attained  or  tested 
only  from  the  study  of  the  tone  itself.  In  a 
simultaneous,  many-sided  production  such  as 
tone,  there  is  no  time  first  to  adjust  the  breath, 
then  the  larynx,  then  the  focus,  then  the  harden- 
ing of  the  cavity  walls,  then  the  tone  color,  enun- 
ciation, interpretation,  etc.,  ad  libitum  (and  ad 
absurdum). 

When  one  has  the  right  idea,  the  right  result 
follows  naturally  in  most  cases, — physical  and 
physiological  conditions  making  necessary  the  ex- 

[21] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

ception.  The  thing  to  be  sought  for  is  the  right 
conception  of  tone  production,  and  I  cannot  state 
too  strongly  that  the  right  mental  conception  of 
tone  can  be  studied  from  only  one  angle, — the 
sound  of  the  tone  at  its  intended  point  of  destina- 
tion. Tone  can  be  analyzed, — true;  but  it  cannot 
be  pieced  together  like  a  piano.  The  keys,  strings 
and  case  do  not  have  to  be  produced  simultane- 
ously and  coordinately. 

I  will  not  trespass  upon  the  reader's  time  by 
further  discussion.  This  is  the  point  where  we 
must  leave  the  matter  to  the  combined  earnest 
study  of  teacher  and  pupil.  May  I  close  this 
chapter  by  quoting  what  Mme.  Lilli  Lehmann 
wrote  anent  this  very  subject? 

"Learning  and  teaching  to  hear  is  the  first  task 
of  both  pupil  and  teacher.  One  is  impossible 
without  the  other.  It  is  the  most  difficult  as  well 
as  the  most  grateful  task,  and  it  is  the  only  way 
to  reach  perfection." 

BREATHING  EXERCISES 

A  singer  should  be  physically  strong.  Special 
exercises  are  advisable,  but  by  no  means  should 
they  be  mixed  with  the  study  of  voice. 

Such  exercises  should  not  be  practiced  within 
three  hours  after  eating. 

[22] 


CONSERVATION  OF  THE  VOICE 
Exercise  A. 

1.  Standing  erect  with  arms  hanging. 

2.  Inhale  through  the  nose  while  lifting  the  arms  so  *s 
to  bring  the  hands  together  above  the  head  when  the  inhala- 
tion is  complete. 

3.  Keep  this  position  from  four  to  ten  seconds. 

4.  Bring  arms  down  while  exhaling  through  mouth. 

5.  Inhale  quickly  through  the  nose. 

6.  Exhale  abruptly  through  the  mouth. 

Exercise  B. 

1.  Stand  erect  with  arms  extended  forward. 

2.  Take  a  full  breath  through  the  nose. 

3.  Move  the  arms  backward  and  again   forward,  then 
turn  them  alternately  around  like  the  wings  of  a  windmill. 

4.  Exhale  thorugh  the  open  mouth. 

5.  6.     As  in  exercise  "A"  above. 

Exercise  C. 

1.  Stand  erect  with  arms  extended  forward. 

2.  Inhale  fully  through  the  nose. 

3.  Swing  the  arms  horizontally  forward  and  backward 
three  to  six  times,  while  holding  breath. 

4.  Forcibly  breathe  out  through  the  mouth. 

5.  6.     As  in  exercise  "A." 

Exercise  D. 

1.  Stand  erect  with  hands  on  the  hips. 

2.  Breathe  in  deeply  and  hold  the  breath. 

3.  Without  moving  the  legs,  lower  the  bust  while  breath- 
ing out  through  the  mouth. 

4.  Bend  the  bust  backward  while  inhaling  through  the 
nose. 

5.  Go    back    to   the    standing    position    while    exhaling 
through  the  open  mouth. 

6.  7.     Repeat  the  movement  as  in  5,  6  of  Exercise  "A." 

[23] 


FlG.  2. — Exercises  for  respiration. 


[24] 


CONSERVATION  OF  THE  VOICE 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  VOICE 

Intensity. — The  intensity  of  a  sound  depends 
upon  the  quantity  of  vibrations  of  the  sonorous 
body. 

The  breath  is  the  principal  factor  in  develop- 
ing the  intensity  of  a  voice,  but  not  the  only  one. 
The  resounding  chambers  are  also  of  vital  im- 
portance. Among  them  the  mouth  holds  first 
place  as  it  has  the  faculty  of  regulating  the  in- 
tensity of  a  tone.  As  I  said  before,  we  are  not 
singing  for  ourselves  but  for  those  who  are  listen- 
ing to  us.  The  vibrating  air  that  comes  from  our 
vocal  machinery  should  put  into  vibration  the  air 
in  the  hall,  and  in  the  end  it  is  the  hall  that  serves 
as  the  chief  resonator  of  our  tones.  The  voice 
must  have  the  necessary  carrying  power  in  order 
to  be  able  to  profit  by  the  resonance  of  the  hall. 
This  can  be  obtained  by  releasing  the  tone  com- 
pletely and  concentrating  exclusively  on  the  dis- 
tance desired.  An  "inside"  voice  (one  in  which 
the  tone  is  not  "let  go")  will  not  answer  the  pur- 
pose. The  intensity  will  be  exaggerated,  the 
work  of  the  vocal  organs  too  heavy.  A  sort  of 
internal  explosion  will  be  the  net  result  (trem- 
olo). 

Timbre. — The  timbre  is  the  leading  quality  of 
the  voice.  Upon  a  single  note,  without  knowing 

[25] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

the  range  or  power  of  the  voice,  we  are  able 
to  judge  that  voice.  Already  it  has  pleased 
or  displeased  us  by  its  so-called  quality  or 
timbre. 

The  timbre  is  formed  in  the  larynx  and  in  the 
different  resounding  chambers,  and  is  the  char- 
acteristic quality  of  every  voice,  which  cannot  be 
substantially  changed,  but  can  be  modified  and 
improved.  (Sometimes  operations  upon  the 
nose,  tonsils,  etc.,  change  the  form  of  the  re- 
sounding chambers  and  consequently  affect  its 
timbre.) 

The  mouth  gives  the  final  and  strongest  im- 
print to  the  voice,  and  it  is  this  "timbre"  that  we 
grasp  most. 

It  is  necessary,  then,  to  make  the  mouth  re- 
sound, and  through  it  the  hall. 

Different  positions  of  the  mouth,  lips,  tongue, 
etc.,  form  the  vowels, — those  vowels  are  funda- 
mentally five  in  number,  viz.,  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  and 
vary  greatly  in  pronunciation  in  the  different  lan- 
guages. Thus  in  Italian  we  have  "e"  and  "o," 
for  instance,  pronounced  differently  (closed  and 
open) ,  and  in  French  the  "e"  has  several  shad- 
ings.  I  do  not  find  it  possible  to  describe  prop- 
erly all  those  names.  I  just  state  the  fact;  the 
conscientious  teacher  will  be  able  to  indicate  the 
variations  in  pronunciation. 

[26] 


CONSERVATION  OF  THE  VOICE 

As  to  the  vowels  to  be  used  during  vocalizing, 
I  have  no  particular  preference,  for  practice  on 
all  is  necessary.  In  the  scale  it  seems  as  if  the 
dark  vowels  ("o"  and  "u")  reinforces  the  low 
notes  best,  and  the  clear  ("i"  and  "e")  the  high. 
(This  is  an  old  theory  to  which  I  am  not  fully 
committed,  for  it  depends  upon  organic  indi- 
viduality.) 

As  the  mouth  is  the  principal  resonator,  it  must 
be  well  controlled,  serving  as  the  parting  point 
for  every  note.  If  the  mouth  be  properly  so- 
norized  the  hall  will  also  be  fully  sonorized. 

When  the  singer  learns  how  to  listen  to  the 
sound  of  his  voice  at  the  point  of  destination,  he 
will  'without  giving  it  a  thought  impart  to  it  the 
desired  timbre.  Whenever  he  thinks  of  his  vocal 
machinery  he  suggests  that  thought  to  his  hear- 
ers, a  most  unpleasant  substitute  for  the  senti- 
ment of  the  song. 

The  voice  placed  in  the  mouth  carries  and 
seems  tc  form  itself  in  the  hall, — even  round  the 
ears  of  the  audience.  Thanks  to  that  work  al- 
most exclusively  of  the  "accommodation  buc- 
cal," — that  is  to  say,  the  resonances  above  the 
glottis  and  of  the  mouth  articulation, — the  larynx 
tires  but  slightly,  and  after  a  great  deal  of  work 
the  vocal  chords  remain  white  and  smooth  as  be- 
fore. 

[27] 


Range;  Registers. — The  range  of  a  voice  is 
undoubtedly  a  most  important  element  for  its 
classification,  but  as  already  stated,  it  is  but  one 
of  many  factors  to  be  considered. 

It  is  also  true  that  a  poorly  or  slightly  trained 
voice  can  hardly  demonstrate  its  entire  scope. 
Voices  spoiled  by  bad  training  methods  have  fre- 
quently a  false  range. 

A  conscientious  teacher  is  compelled  to  "make 
haste  slowly"  in  passing  judgment  upon  a  pupil's 
voice, — for  its  true  character  may  take  consider- 
able time  and  care  to  discover.  Meanwhile  avoid 
all  use  of  the  extreme  notes,  the  high  as  well  as 
the  low,  and  concentrate  attention  upon  equaliz- 
ing those  notes  within  whose  limits  the  teacher 
thinks  it  wise  to  keep  the  voice. 

We  here  reach  the  widely  discussed  question 
of  registers;  and  I  shall  try  to  describe  them 
clearly. 

The  word  "register"  was  first  applied  to  the 
organ,  and  is  still  used  to  designate  in  that  in- 
strument a  series  of  tubes  having  the  same  char- 
acter or  tone  (timbre) .  In  wind  instruments  the 
total  range  is  divided  into  three  or  four  such  sec- 
tions or  registers,  such  as  low,  middle,  high,  etc. 

Even  in  the  stringed  instruments,  the  existence 
of  registers  could  be  easily  indicated  if  it  were 
necessary  or  desirable. 

[28] 


CONSERVATION  OF  THE  VOICE 

It  is  anything  but  easy,  however,  to  establish 
how  and  when  this  word  "register"  first  came 
into  vogue  in  connection  with  that  complex  and 
very  peculiar  instrument  which  is  called  the  hu- 
man voice.  And  it  is  still  less  easy,  notwith- 
standing the  zeal  which  throat  specialists  and 
teachers  of  singing  have  devoted  to  the  treatment 
of  this  theme,  to  establish  how  many  and  what 
registers  the  human  voice  may  have.  Some  say 
one,  some  two,  some  three.  Some  designate  them 
one  way,  some,  another.  Some  speak  of  a  regis- 
ter of  falsetto  in  the  higher  range,  claiming  that 
the  much  lower  notes  admit  of  a  second  register 
of  falsetto  which  they  call  "falsetto  basso."  The 
disagreement  is  complete. 

Even  though  the  progress  in  physiological 
science  is  enormous,  we  are  yet  far  from  knowing 
all  the  details  about  the  working  of  the  vocal  ap- 
paratus. 

The  laryngoscope,  invented  by  Garcia,  has 
been  of  great  help,  but  perhaps  more  to  humanity 
in  general  than  to  the  singers  in  any  special  way. 
In  using  this  instrument,  the  uvula  is  spasmod- 
ically contracted  and  the  tongue  outstretched. 
Then  what  liberty  of  function  of  the  vocal  organs 
remains,  and  what  certainty  of  judgment  can  be 
assured  ? 

At  all  events,  while  entering  upon  such  a  vexed 
[29] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

question  it  is  my  desire  to  state  only  those  prin- 
ciples solidly  established,  and  to  bring  to  bear 
upon  them  a  little  common  sense. 

The  vocal  cords,  as  the  voice  ascends  the  scale, 
grow  gradually  thinner.  But  their  thinning  may 
take  place  gradually,  note  by  note,  or  by  leaps,— 
that  is,  by  groups  of  notes.  In  the  first  case, 
therefore,  each  single  note,  and  in  the  second  case 
each  group  of  notes,  is  bound  to  have  a  special 
characteristic.  It  is  this  special  characteristic 
that  is  the  foundation  (if  any  there  be)  for  the 
designation  "register." 

If  no  author  has  dared  yet  to  speak  of  twenty- 
three  or  twenty-four  registers  (which  number 
there  could  be  if  each  note  were  taken  the  most 
appropriate  thickness  of  the  vocal  cords) ,  it  is  be- 
cause practically  one  particular  thickness  of  the 
cords  serves  for  several  adjacent  notes.  But 
what  happens  in  such  a  condition?  The  voice 
proceeds  by  jumps  or  breaks  and  though  it  for  a 
time  seems  successful  it  is  accomplished  by  a  dis- 
astrous effort  of  larynx. 

To  explain  it  more  fully,  let  us  take  an  ex- 
ample. The  fourth  string  of  a  violin  (the  G) 
could,  if  desired,  render  almost  all  the  sounds  in 
the  range  of  the  instrument,  but  to  attain  this  it 
would  be  necessary,  as  soon  as  the  natural  limits 
convenient  to  its  thickness  were  exceeded,  to 

[30] 


CONSERVATION  OF  THE  VOICE 

stretch  it  up  to  the  breaking  point,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  increase  more  and  more  the  pres- 
sure of  the  bow.  To  avoid  this  very  thing,  the 
violin  has  four  strings. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  the  human  voice.  If 
we,  for  a  given  space  of  its  range,  retain  the  same 
thickness  of  the  cords,  we  compel  them  to  stretch 
themselves  beyond  the  normal  point,  while  at  the 
same  time  we  must  increase  the  pressure  of  breath 
out  of  all  proportion.  Such  efforts  are  danger- 
ous. If  a  violin  string,  when  stretched  beyond 
bounds,  breaks,  the  vocal  cords,  stretched  more 
than  necessary,  are  also  bound  to  collapse,  but, 
unlike  the  strings  of  the  violin,  it  would  be  im- 
possible to  replace  them. 

On  the  other  hand,  though  the  violin  has  but 
four  strings,  the  strings  of  a  piano  are  far  more 
numerous,  and  change  thickness  at  every  three  or 
four  notes,  which  means  that  there  are  three  or 
four  sounds  given  by  strings  of  the  same  thick- 
ness. 

The  human  voice  can  do  even  more,  for  the 
thickness  and  the  tension  can  change  with  every 
note,  thus  giving  the  muscles  of  the  larynx  the 
utmost  liberty  while  not  exacting  of  them  or  of 
the  lungs  any  exorbitant  effort. 

Many  singers  thicken  and  stretch  the  cords 
more  than  necessary  in  the  belief  that  by  such 

[31] 


means,  they  lend  more  sonority  to  the  voice. 
That  is  how  the  so-called  registers  come  into  be- 
ing, and  the  voice  going  from  one  into  the  other 
undergoes  a  leap  which,  under  the  name  of  pas- 
sagio.,  has  attracted  the  attention  of  all  the 
"method"  teachers,  who  in  turn,  to  avoid  those 
sudden  changes  in  the  character  of  the  sounds, 
speak  of  equalizing  the  voice,  etc.,  while  none 
seems  to  think  of  curing  the  very  cause  of  the  in- 
equality. This  can  be  done  only  by  giving  to 
each  note  the  proper  thickness  and  tension  of  the 
vocal  cords.  In  other  words,  it  can  be  effected 
in  going  from  lower  to  higher  notes,  by  decreas- 
ing thickness  at  every  note  and  increasing  the 
tension  within  restricted  limits. 

In  such  a  way  the  true  equalization  and  liberty 
of  the  voice  is  attained,  and  we  should  no  longer 
speak  of  registers,  or,  if  we  wish  to  adhere  to  this 
word,  we  shall  have  to  admit  that  the  human  voice 
has  as  many  registers  as  there  are  notes. 

INTERPRETATION  AND  EXPRESSION 

It  is  difficult  to  express  a  thought  without  first 
having  it  well  pictured  or  "imagined."  This  re- 
lates as  well  to  tone  as  to  interpretation.  Too 
many  of  the  singers  and  pupils  give  to  their  audi- 
ence the  very  clear  sensation  that  they  are  think- 
ing, not  of  what  they  are  singing,  but  of  their 

[32] 


CONSERVATION  OF  THE  VOICE 

voice,  their  vocal  cords,  their  breath,  their  sup- 
port, their  vocal  apparatus  and  not  of  the  object 
of  their  song.  Instead  of  our  ears  understand- 
ing more  or  less  clearly  the  spirit  of  "Oh, 
Heavenly  Aida,"  our  brain  only  comprehends 
"diaphragm,  breath,  timbre,  voice  in  the  mask, 
the  high  notes  pointed,  the  focus  between  the 
eyes,  the  size  of  the  mouth,  etc.," — things  which 
do  not  captivate  us. 

The  majority  of  singers  neglect  the  arduous 
training  which  is  necessary  to  develop  the  will 
to  express.  They  think  of  everything  but  the 
thing  they  sing,  and  prevent  us  from  thinking  of 
it  also.  Many  pupils  do  everything  that  their 
teachers  have  done,  but  do  not  feel  it, — they 
copy.  They  enunciate  poorly  because  they  do 
not  conceive  clearly.  Often  they  do  not  conceive 
the  very  thing  they  intend  to  express.  If  they 
thought  of  that  which  they  ought  to  give, — if 
they  felt  it,  they  would  awaken  in  themselves 
the  desired  means  of  expressing  it,  and  so 
would  rise  to  the  demands  of  the  author  and  the 
public. 

Nothing  will  assist  more  the  development  of 
the  power  of  expression  than  a  careful  study  of 
mimicry  and  gesture. 

Success  in  the  business  of  entertaining  others 
is  sometimes  said  to  be  due  to  personal  magnet- 

[33] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

ism.  And  yet  the  secret  of  personal  magnetism 
is  the  absolute  effacemeni  of  self.  In  artistic 
lines  the  best  work  is  always  inspirational.  The 
vocal  expression  or  interpretation  must  be  felt 
by  the  singer,  who,  for  the  time,  completely  for- 
gets himself  and  his  lessons. 

The  art  of  expression  is  a  special  talent  and 
one  which  can  only  be  cultivated  and  developed 
with  the  aid  of  the  imagination.  To  express  well 
means  to  imagine  well, — imagination  being  the 
basis  of  creation.  The  powers  of  expression  are 
aided  by  good  habits  of  accentuation  and  pronun- 
ciation. 

Accentuation. — There  are  three  accents  in 
the  voice:  the  accent  of  intensity,  the  accent  of 
height,  the  accent  of  timbre.  In  reality,  the 
accent  is  only  the  making  evident  of  one  of  the 
qualities  of  the  sound.  Generally  the  three  qual- 
ities assert  themselves  together,  but  one  of  them 
may  be  more  accented  than  the  others.  In  one 
phrase  it  may  be  the  force  of  the  syllable  which 
is  important,  in  that  the  intonation  expresses  a 
significance  in  the  melody;  in  another  it  is  the 
vocal  timbre,  with  tone  color,  etc.  Here  still  it 
is  the  thought  which  gives  the  expression.  Noth- 
ing is  easier  than  to  accentuate,  but  it  is  neces- 
sary not  to  allow  ourselves  to  be  absorbed  by  the 
machinery  of  the  voice,  but  to  modulate  the  voice 

[34] 


CONSERVATION  OF  THE  VOICE 

upon  the  objective  conception,  upon  the  exterior 
realization  of  the  sonorous  forms  ideally  evoked 
at  a  distance,  in  a  way  to  give  to  the  song  the  em- 
ployment of  a  vast,  sonorous  gesture,  filling  the 
hall  and  fixing  the  attention  of  its  auditors  upon 
its  sonority. 

Pronunciation. — Articulation  is  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  sonorous  accents  of  pronunciation  at 
a  distance.  There  are  two  articulations,  the  ar- 
ticulation glottic,  or  vocalization ;  the  articulation 
buccal,  or  verbalization.  The  latter  is  the  word 
sung, — the  speaking  in  the  song. 

In  vocalization,  the  vowel  matters  little.  It  is 
necessary  to  vocalize  upon  all. 

The  work  upon  "distance"  is,  here  as  every- 
where, the  first  condition  of  a  good  buccal  articu- 
lation. It  is  necessary  to  pronounce  largely  in 
proportion  as  you  intend  to  sing  afar  off.  In  no 
case  is  it  necessary  that  the  vocal  form  be  carried 
away  on  the  verbal  form, — that  the  note  go  be- 
yond the  syllable.  Wherever  the  voice  carries  it 
ought  to  take  a  verbal  form,  and  have  besides  a 
syllabic  character. 

For  that  result  it  is  necessary  that  the  syllable 
come  out  clearly  articulated  in  the  forward  part 
of  the  mouth.  If  it  must  be  formed  in  the  rear, 
as  when  we  pronounce  the  gutturals,  the  palatals 
and  the  vowels  like  "ei"  or  "ou,"  it  ought  to  be 

[35] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

held  longer  in  the  forward  part  of  the  mouth,  and 
not  allowed  to  go  out  except  by  an  orifice  vibrant. 
It  carries  then  its  syllabic  timbre,  which  will  not 
leave  it  until  it  arrives  at  its  destination. 

It  is  essential  above  all  that  the  accentuation 
carry  upon  every  syllable  and  not  upon  the  vowel. 
The  ear  of  the  singer,  which  watches  from  afar 
the  force,  the  intonation,  the  timbre,  ought 
equally  to  watch  the  pronunciation,  its  verbal 
significance. 

The  term  "pronunciation"  admirably  sums  up 
the  physiology  of  the  act.  Many  singers  practice 
ret  renunciation. 

It  goes  almost  without  saying,  so  evident  is  it, 
that  each  pupil  must  learn  to  understand,  to  com- 
pare, to  appreciate,  to  feel,  the  sentiment  of  the 
song,  and  to  conform  the  tone  thereto.  Who- 
ever does  not  comprehend  a  beautiful  sound  will 
never  be  able  to  reproduce  it.  Nor  can  one  give 
the  proper  reading  to  a  poetic  theme  without  in  a 
measure  feeling  the  emotion  to  be  expressed. 
Natural  talent  and  passion  are  gifts,  impossible 
of  manufacture  when  not  possessed ;  but  like  dia- 
monds in  the  rough,  these  essential  attributes 
need  refining.  The  pupil  must  learn  to  like  what 
he  is  singing,  thus  adding  interest  to  study  which 
is  in  itself  beautiful,  and  causing  the  student  to 
forget  the  hard  work  involved. 

[36] 


CONSERVATION  OF  THE  VOICE 

Again  it  is  ruinous  to  adopt  for  all  students  a 
uniform  program  of  study,  akin  to  the  inflexibil- 
ity of  a  mechanical  system.  There  must  be  room 
for  all  the  elasticity  that  may  be  necessary  for 
adaptation  to  all  circumstances,  to  all  types,  to 
all  characters;  to  adjust  itself  to  the  physical 
strength  of  every  pupil,  to  the  limits  of  his  voice 
or  breathing  ability,  to  the  special  aptitudes  and 
to  the  different  faults,  natural,  or  acquired  by 
practice  or  totally  erroneous  study. 

The  Mouth. — The  most  important  factor  is 
the  proper  opening  of  the  mouth.  The  slight- 
est deviation  from  its  correct  position  will  lead 
to  more  or  less  dangerous  contraction  of  the 
muscles.  Any  stiffening  of  the  muscles  of  one 
part  of  the  vocal  machinery  is  automatically  im- 
parted to  and  shared  by  other  parts,  thus  throw- 
ing out  of  gear  the  entire  vocal  apparatus. 

In  the  old  Italian  school  of  singing,  much  at- 
tention was  paid  to  the  position  of  the  mouth. 
In  a  work  about  the  voice,  published  in  the  sec- 
ond part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  author, 
whose  name  I  do  not  now  recall,  quotes  Tosi,  Ber- 
nacchi,  Gervasoni,  Florimo,  and  other  great  vocal 
teachers  of  the  same  period,  on  the  position  of 
the  mouth  when  singing.  All  those  celebrities 
agreed  that  one  of  the  greatest  difficulties  con- 
fronting a  vocal  teacher  is  to  obtain  from  their 

[37] 


FIG.     3. — Various     openings    of    the     mouth     in     singing. 
1 — Correct.  2-8 — Wrong. 

[38] 


pupils  a  natural,  or,  as  they  call  it,  "right"  open- 
ing of  the  mouth;  and  Bernacchi  even  went  so 
far  as  to  state  emphatically  (in  which  he  was  in- 
dorsed by  a  group  of  wonderful  singers,  his  pu- 
pils) that  it  is  impossible  to  produce  a  correct 
tone  without  assuring  correct  positions  of  the 
tongue  and  mouth. 

Undoubtedly  the  failure  of  many  singers  is 
due  to  a  stiff,  forced  constrained  action  of  the 
articulating  organs.  There  is  no  sound  in  the 
human  voice  (except  a  grunt)  that  can  be  made 
independently  of  the  mouth.  The  mouth  regu- 
lates pitch,  quality,  intensity.  The  unruly 
tongue,  hard  lips,  smiling  cheek,  stiff  lower  jaw 
draw  upon  the  muscles  of  the  throat,  which 
in  turn  press  upon  the  larynx,  thus  interfering 
with  the  right  action  of  the  voice,  and  preventing 
free,  natural,  beautiful  tone. 

Seeking  to  improve  the  vocal  tone  without  re- 
garding as  most  important  the  natural  articula- 
tion and  correct  pronunciation  will  inevitably  re- 
sult in  the  malformation  of  the  mouth,  and  con- 
sequently of  the  voice. 

A  tone  that  comes  from  a  constricted  mouth 
is  not  a  really  human  tone,  but  partakes  rather 
of  the  instrumental.  Correct  speaking  will  lead 
to  correct  singing,  as  speaking  and  singing  are 
modulations  of  the  same  function. 

[39] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

The  Phonograph. — Just  as  conceit  hinders 
progress,  so  any  kind  of  fair  criticism  tends  to  as- 
sist in  the  development  of  artistic  work.  The 
phonograph,  while  not  in  any  sense  a  substitute 
for  a  vocal  teacher,  is  still  of  great  value  to  the 
singer.  It  reveals  at  once  his  defects  as  well  as 
his  strong  points.  I  cheerfully  grant  that  the 
quality  of  a  voice  is  lost  in  its  phonographic  re- 
production, but  everything  else  remains,  and 
faulty  breathing  and  errors  of  diction,  interpreta- 
tion, tone-placing,  etc.,  are  distinctly  revealed. 
It  is  often  claimed  by  singers  who  have  been  un- 
successful in  obtaining  engagements  as  phono- 
graphic artists,  that  not  every  good  voice  is  suit- 
able for  recording  purposes.  As  a  general  propo- 
sition, the  singers  who  make  such  claims  are  badly 
mistaken,  for  the  phonograph,  when  properly 
handled,  gives  back  very  nearly  what  it  receives. 
It  is  a  fact  known  to  phonograph  experts,  how- 
ever, that  many  records  are  poor  through  no 
fault  of  the  singer,  such  as  failure  to  use  proper 
recorders  (of  just  the  right  sensitiveness)  for 
the  voice  in  question,  so  as  to  correspond  with 
the  voice  quality,  also  improper  size  of  horn  used, 
—either  of  which  factors,  if  overlooked,  will  ruin 
the  record  of  the  greatest  artist  in  the  world.  It 
is  possible,  therefore,  that  a  failure  may  be  due, 
not  to  vocal  inadaptabilities  for  recording,  but 

[40] 


CONSERVATION  OF  THE  VOICE 

simply  to  a  poor  selection  of  instruments  for  that 
particular  voice.  But  as  a  general  thing  the 
phonograph  is  a  fairly  accurate  mirror  of  the  hu- 
man voice,  and  the  singer  with  many  faults  in 
his  production  who  claims  his  poor  record  is  the 
fault  of  the  instrument  and  not  his  own  has  a  very 
difficult  claim  to  substantiate. 

It  is  my  personal  belief,  after  a  great  deal  of 
experience  with  phonograph  singing  and  singers, 
as  well  as  the  recording  instruments  themselves, 
that  phono-recording  is  an  almost  invaluable  aid 
to  the  student  in  his  endeavor  to  succeed. 

Speaking  about  phonographs,  I  will  describe 
in  a  few  words  the  process  of  manufacturing  rec- 
ords. 

The  singer,  surrounded  by  the  orchestra,  sings 
into  the  horn  of  a  recording  machine.  The  width 
and  length  of  horn  have  a  great  deal  to  do  with 
the  success  or  failure  of  the  venture,  as  has  also 
the  proper  selection  of  the  recording  instrument. 
The  latter  consists  of  special  castings,  in  general 
form  similar  to  the  ordinary  phonograph  repro- 
ducer, on  which  is  set  a  round  glass  plate,  with  a 
diamond  needle  attached  for  the  purpose  of  cut- 
ting the  groove  on  the  wax  blank.  The  thick- 
ness of  the  glass  and  the  manner  of  setting  the 
needle  upon  it  have  much  to  do  with  the  sensitive- 
ness of  the  completed  recorder. 

[41] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

As  I  have  said,  the  selection  of  suitable  horn 
and  recorder  for  each  singer  is  a  problem  upon 
which  all  depends.  After  the  sound  vibrations 
are  recorded  upon  the  wax  blank,  the  blank  is 
taken  to  the  galvano-plastics  bath,  where  from 
the  copper  solution  a  negative  form  of  the  orig- 
inal wax  blank  is  made.  This  process  is  repeated 
several  times  until  the  copper  stamper,  as  it  is 
called,  is  completed. 

The  stamper,  after  being  nickeled  and  backed, 
is  then  placed  with  the  record  stock,  under  a  hy- 
draulic pressure  of  thousands  of  pounds,  which 
converts  it  into  a  finished  record. 

THE  HALLS 

The  halls,  like  the  vocal  apparatus  itself,  have 
their  individuality,  which  is  more  or  less  adapted 
to  the  needs  of  singing.  Few  halls  are  accousti- 
cally  correct,  and  the  singer  must  be  ready  to 
comply  with  the  varying  demands.  In  other 
words,  as  the  hall  will  not  change  its  attitude  to- 
ward the  singer's  voice,  the  singer's  art  must 
master  the  peculiarities  of  the  hall. 

I  am  really  very  sorry  for  those  singers  who, 
in  different  halls,  with  different  conditions,  are 
always  applying  one  and  the  same  method  of 
breath  control  and  tone  production.  The  real 
secret  of  great  art  consists  in  balancing  well  the 

[42] 


CONSERVATION  OF  THE  VOICE 

strength  and  carrying  capacity  of  the  tone  with 
the  qualities  of  the  hall. 

If  we  use  insufficient  voice  for  the  space  we 
are  singing  in.,  the  tone  will  not  reach  its  destina- 
tion. On  the  other  hand,  by  giving  out  too  much 
voice  we  may  create  an  echo.  Therefore  the 
singer  must  endeavor  to  balance  exactly  the  meas- 
ure of  tone  and  the  requirements  or  conditions  of 
the  hall. 

Of  course  this  can  be  accomplished  by  well 
placed  voices  (forward  singing).  A  wrongly 
placed  voice  will  never  be  capable  of  adjustment 
to  accoustics. 

It  is  a  great  mistake  to  think  that  a  big  hall 
needs  a  big  voice.  Not  so.  Even  the  smallest 
voice  can  dominate  a  big  hall,  if  its  carrying 
capacity  be  developed  to  full  advantage. 

The  orchestra's  part,  except  during  overtures, 
choruses,  etc.,  is  distinctly  that  of  accompanist, 
and  under  no  circumstances  should  singer  and  or- 
chestra be  competitors.  It  is  a  sad  fact,  never- 
theless, that  under  some  leaders  such  a  condition 
does  seem  to  arise  at  times.  Then,  indeed,  must 
the  singer  be  of  such  caliber  of  artistry  that  he  is 
able  to  maintain  the  maximum  of  carrying  power 
with  yet  some  measure  of  reserve  in  force,  or  dis- 
aster is  imminent. 


CHAPTER  III 

VOICE  PLACING DISCUSSION  OF  DEFECTIVE  VOICES 

DEFECTIVE  VOICES 

A  normal  human  being  does  not  usually  talk 
for  the  mere  sake  of  talking,  but  to  say  some- 
thing which  he  desires  another  or  others  to  hear ; 
he  talks  to  some  one,  and  that  some  one  is  at  a 
point  more  or  less  distant,  as  the  case  may  be. 
This  commonplace  statement  is,  however,  an  il- 
lustration of  a  definite  object  that  should  be 
borne  in  mind  by  every  person  who  is  in  any  man- 
ner using  his  voice  professionally.  The  vocal 
gesture,  as  it  may  be  termed,  permits  us  to  put 
into  vibration  the  hearing  centers  of  the  individ- 
ual addressed,  or,  perhaps,  the  hundreds  or  thou- 
sands of  people  assembled  in  an  auditorium.  Se- 
curing this  responsive  vibration  is  the  aim  or  goal 
which  is  stimulating  our  effort  and  movement. 

One  does  not  talk  for  the  purpose  of  influenc- 
ing his  own  thought  by  his  own  sound  vibrations. 
It  is  done  in  order  to  communicate  to  others  the 
set  of  vibrations  originating  in  the  brain  of  the 
speaker.  If  a  certain  thought,  for  example,  be 

[44] 


VOICE  PLACING 

expressed  by  me  by  means  of  certain  vibrations,  I 
know  that  those  vibrations  will  mechanically  con- 
vey that  thought  to  others;  but  those  vibrations 
must  'without  fail  reach  the  ears  of  such  other 
persons. 

These  are  the  simple  things, — so  simple,  in- 
deed, that  we  nearly  always  forget  them  when 
studying  singing,  with  the  sad  result  that  we  lose 
the  real  aim  of  the  vocal  tone.  In  that  case  no 
matter  how  wonderfully  controlled  is  the  tone, 
even  though  it  be  to  the  point  of  entire  satisfac- 
tion to  the  singer's  self,  the  voice  is  constricted, 
the  tone  misplaced,  and  instead  of  a  free,  soaring, 
sonorous,  carrying  tone,  the  product  of  complete 
naturalness,  the  tone  will  be  long  in  effort  and 
short  in  effect.  The  sound  waves  either  will  not 
be  sufficient  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  hall  or 
theater,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  will  not  be  pleas- 
urably  received  if  more  tone  is  used  than  the  place 
requires.  If  the  singer  be  earnest  and  intelligent, 
he  will  soon  notice  these  false  results,  and  try  all 
kinds  of  vocal  expedients  in  an  endeavor  to  rem- 
edy the  situation.  For  instance,  a  new  and  won- 
derful method  (at  first  all  seem  wonderful 
enough)  will  be  substituted  for  the  old  one.  A 
new  manner  of  breath  control  may  appear  to  be 
just  the  thing  wanted.  But  the  real  future  of  a 
singer  who  through  artificial  and  alleged  scien- 

[45] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

tific  methods  works  unconsciously  against  his 
natural  make-up  lies  not  on  the  stage  or  plat- 
form, but  unfortunately  in  the  hands  of  the 
throat  physician. 

Supports  of  the  Voice. — The  factors  which 
reinforce  the  tone,  and  give  the  singer  ability  to 
place  it  at  a  desired  point  of  destination,  are 
termed  the  supports  of  the  voice. 

When  reinforcing  the  tone  in  the  different 
cavities  and  resonating  chambers  of  the  vocal 
machinery,  such  as  chest,  throat,  mouth  and  nose, 
it  is  necessary  to  make  use  of  such  reinforcement 
in  a  way  that  will  not  block  the  free  exit  of  the 
tone.  Only  in  this  way  will  the  tone  have  clear 
and  definite  character  and  carrying  qualities. 

If  a  tone  be  directed  not  toward  the  audience 
but  to  one  of  the  back  facial  cavities,  it  fails,  as  a 
natural  result,  to  sonorize  the  air  which  surrounds 
the  singer,  and  although  it  may  seem  to  be  a  very 
loud  tone  to  the  singer  himself,  it  has  neverthe- 
less lost  its  entire  carrying  power.  The  French 
call  this  process  sombrer  la  voice  (clouding  the 
voice),  and  the  Italians  describe  it  as  voce  oscura 
(the  obscured  voice), — both  phrases,  you  will 
note,  mean  exactly  the  same  thing. 

I  shall  call  it  darkening  the  voice,  inasmuch  as 
this  production  always  gives  the  impression  of 
an  unnaturally  dark,  confined,  dull  tone. 

[46] 


VOICE  PLACING 

There  are  different  kinds  of  "darkenings,"  of 
course.  The  stifling  of  the  tone  may  occur  by 
reason  of  a  wrong  or  over-use  of  the  chest,  the 
throat,  the  mouth  or  the  nose.  And  yet  for  some 
special  effects  in  expression  in  the  intentional 
darkening  of  tones  by  these  means  is  both  permis- 
sible and  proper,  though  dangerous  and  to  be 
made  use  of  by  the  experienced  artist  only. 

The  darkened  voice,  rumbling  within  the  singer 
because  prevented  from  vibrating  outside,  re- 
quires much  muscular  strength  and  effort  to  be 
heard,  and  the  vocal  machinery  soon  becomes  fa- 
tigued. 

Darkening  has  created  many  different  tone 
productions,  all  wrong  and  ultimately  disastrous, 
and  yet  it  seems  to  be  a  favorite  method  with 
teachers  of  a  certain  class. 

Correctness  of  tone  production  is  in  direct  pro- 
portion to  its  naturalness.  The  naturalness  of  a 
tone  depends  upon  the  harmony  or  balance  main- 
tained in  the  use  of  the  breath,  larynx  and  resona- 
tors. If  one  of  these  factors  works  in  an  ex- 
aggerated or  inefficient  manner,  the  whole 
scheme  or  production  is  wrong, — the  voice  is  de- 
fective. 

Defective  voices,  of  which  unfortunately  a 
large  proportion  even  among  professionals  may 
be  so  designated,  can  be  fairly  classified  as: 

[47] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

1.  Voices  defective  by  reason  of  wrong  use  of 
the  mechanism  of  tone  production, — breath,  etc. 

2.  Voices  defective  on  account  of  wrong  tone 
focus, — imperfect  use  of  the  resonating  cavities. 

3.  Voices  defective  for  other  reasons. 

Misuse  of  Vocal  Machinery. — The  mere 
passing  of  the  breath  through  the  vocal  cords 
is  generally  assumed  to  produce  tone.  This  is 
not  entirely  true,  however.  Without  resonat- 
ing surfaces  the  sound  would  be  so  weak  as 
to  be  hardly  worthy  of  the  name,  and  the  result 
would  be  what  is  called  "theoretical  sound."  Ex- 
periments have  been  made  by  scientists,  using  the 
larynxes  of  dead  persons,  testing  through  the 
medium  of  electricity,  and  the  sound  produced 
was  hardly  audible  to  ordinary  ears.  Of  course 
such  experiments  are  at  best  hardly  satisfactory 
or  conclusive,  for  with  the  intention  to  produce 
sound  there  could  hardly  be  any  tightening  of 
the  cords,  and  the  result  is  bound  to  be  more  or 
less  the  same  as  when  endeavoring  to  draw  tone 
from  a  violin  string  before  it  is  brought  up  to 
somewhere  near  its  natural  pitch.  The  balance 
of  proportion,  in  other  words,  between  breath 
and  vocal  cords  must  be  maintained.  The  use 
of  too  much  or  too  little  breath  causes  over  or 
under  work  of  the  vocal  cords,  and  thus  are 

[48] 


VOICE  PLACING 

evolved  the  voices  coming  within  this  category. 
The  opposite  extremes  in  defective  voices  such 
as  we  are  discussing  may  be  described  as  those 
singing  on  the  breath,  and  those  singing  on  the 
timbre. 


FIG.  4. — Theoretical  sound. 

In  singing  on  the  breath  the  air  passes 
through  the  vocal  cords  without  sufficient  vocal 
tension,  as  mentioned  before.  This  production 
causes  a  slight  tardiness  of  attack,  which  is  thus 
weak  and  lacking  decision.  This  method  is  at 
least  inoffensive,  but  gives  the  effect  of  a  certain 
laziness  in  singing  which  may  be  a  great  obstacle 
to  proper  tone  production. 

[49] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

The  exact  opposite  of  this  fault  is  singing  on 
the  timbre  where,  owing  to  the  exaggerated 
contraction  of  the  vocal  cords,  which  latter  are 
worked  to  the  utmost  while  other  parts  of  the 


FIG.  5. — Singing  on  the  timbre. 

vocal  machinery  are  but  little  if  at  all  engaged, 
a  certain  sharpness  of  the  voice  is  noticeable. 
This  result  could  fairly  be  described  as  develop- 
ing to  the  extreme  so-called  voce  teorica,  or  the 
glottic  sound.  Production  of  this  kind  is  found 
to  be  very  popular  with  the  second  and  third 
class  opera  singers  who,  lacking  the  necessary 
foundation  in  voice  training,  are  saving  them- 

[501 


VOICE  PLACING 

selves  in  what  appears  to  them  the  easiest  pos- 
sible manner.  This  relief  is  very  temporary, 
however,  because  singing  on  the  timbre  is  ulti- 
mately most  harmful  to  the  voice. 

Somewhat  similar  to  singing  on  the  timbre  is 
the  pinched  voice,  in  which  the  use  of  the  glottis 
is  also  excessive,  and  the  tone  is  slightly  re- 
stricted or  confined. 

Forced  Voice. — The  use  of  too  much  breath 
in  the  tone  has  a  deplorable  effect  on  the  vocal 
cords.  The  respiratory  effect  is  felt  and  heard 
in  the  musical  articulation.  With  this  tone  pro- 
duction it  is  impossible  to  sing  a  long  phrase 
even  with  an  unnatural  amount  of  air  in  the 
lungs.  This  sort  of  singing  tends  to  create 
breaks  and  a  quantity  of  registers  in  a  healthy 
voice. 

Drawn-out  Voice. — This  is  similar  to  singing 
on  the  breath. 

Quivering  Voice. — In  the  quivering  voice  the 
air  pressure  upon  the  vocal  cords  is  far  too 
strong,  thus  hampering  the  freedom  of  the  vocal 
machinery,  making  the  voices  shaky  and  in  some 
cases  resulting  in  a  confirmed  tremor.  Often 
this  habit  leads  to  an  unpleasant  tremolo. 

Enlarged  Voice. — To  me  the  enlarged  or  too 
open  voice  gives  the  impression  of  a  certain  un- 
natural thickness  or  breadth.  An  enlarged  voice 

[51] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

is  short  in  range  and  has  very  little  carrying 
quality.  Some  of  the  mezzo  sopranos  and  con- 
traltos are  using  this  production  in  their  low 
tones,  and  unconsciously  are  pressing  the  voice 
in  the  chest.  This  production  very  often  causes 
a  break  in  the  tone,  and  does  not  permit  of  sing- 
ing softly,  nor  does  it  enable  one  to  sing  a  good 
legato.  These  weaknesses  are  due  to  the  entire 
lack  of  overtone,  a  direct  result  of  too  much  use 
of  the  chest  register  to  the  exclusion  of  a  proper 
use  of  the  resonating  cavities.  It  should  be  re- 
membered that  the  old  masters  said,  "Chi  non 
lega  non  canto"-  -"He  who  is  not  uniting  the 
voice  is  not  singing." 

Tense  or  Stiff  Voice. — A  voice  a  trifle  similar 
to  the  forced  or  enlarged  voice,  in  which  the 
effort  of  phonation  is  noticeable  to  the  audience 
as  well  as  to  the  singer.  In  this  kind  of  produc- 
tion again  the  vocal  cords  have  to  work  too  stren- 
uously. 

Vibrato. — As  an  effect  the  vibrato  is  occa- 
sionally useful.  Its  use  often  becomes  a  habit, 
to  the  serious  damage  of  voices.  Vibrato  is 
nothing  else  than  overtaxing  the  voice.  The 
vocal  machinery,  breath  and  larynx,  are  used  to 
full  capacity  and  then  it  is  attempted  to  add 
"some  more."  That  "some  more"  is  forcing,  and 
forcing  is  necessarily  disastrous  to  any  voice. 

[52] 


VOICE  PLACING 

Vibrato  was  introduced  by  Rubini,  but  Rubini 
was  careful  to  make  use  of  it  only  in  places  of 
great  dramatic  emotion. 

Voices  Using  Resonators  Imperfectly. — A 
lack  of  balance  in  the  distribution  of  the  reso- 
nating surfaces  is  caused  by  the  voice  becom- 
ing inclosed  or  confined  in  one  of  the  resonat- 
ing cavities.  With  the  exception  of  the  white 
voices  (over-bright,  lacking  in  breadth  or  depth) , 
all  of  these  voices  are  darkened,  and  nearly  all 
of  them  are  lacking  in  the  proper  use  of  the 
articulating  organs,  a  weakness  fatal  to  proper 
tone  production. 

In  all  of  the  hereafter  mentioned  faulty  tone 
productions,  the  singer  leans  more  or  less  toward 
ventriloquism.  His  pronunciation  is  performed 
by  organs  whose  functions  are  entirely  differ- 
ent, and  the  net  result  might  more  aptly  be  called 
retronunciation. 

Chest  Voice. — If  a  noticeable  sensation  of 
vibration  is  felt  at  the  interior  of  the  chest,  even 
when  the  voice  is  but  slightly  intensified,  such 
may  be  called  chest  production,  the  maximum 
of  effort  being  directed  upon  the  lower  vocal 
areas.  The  voice  increases  in  size  without  in- 
creasing in  carrying  power,  and  becomes  heavier. 
In  seeking  for  beautiful,  deep  tones,  many  alto 
or  contralto  voices  become  heavy  by  confining 

[53] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

the  voice  in  the  chest.  Nothing  could  be  more 
unpleasant  or  destructive.  A  mezzo,  heavy  in 
the  low  tones  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  size 
of  the  rest  of  the  voice,  fails  to  become  a  con- 


FIG.  6. — Chest  voice. 

tralto  and  is  no  longer  a  mezzo.  Bassos  com- 
monly abuse  their  voices  in  this  manner,  which 
explains  why  it  is  so  hard  nowadays  to  find  a  good 
basso  voice, — most  of  them  suffering  from  trem- 
olo, lack  of  resonance,  poor  high  tones,  etc. 

Dark  or  Deep  Voice. — A  voice  with  strong 
interior  resonance,  which  rumbles  more  or  less 
inside  the  vocal  apparatus.  This  production 
helps  the  tone  to  gain  in  expressiveness,  life  and 

[54] 


VOICE  PLACING 

personality,  but  kills  completely  the  carrying 
power  of  the  tone. — This  production  is  much 
favored  by  the  European  vaudeville  singers. 


FIG.  7. — Dark  or  deep  voice 

Closed  Voice. — The  exaggerated  darkening 
of  the  voice  in  the  high  register  causes  the  loss 
of  carrying  power.  This  is  a  very  bad  produc- 
tion, and  injures  seriously  the  higher  registers  of 
the  voice.  It  is,  unfortunately,  very  much  rec- 
ommended at  present.  Some  term  it  "placing 
the  tone  between  the  eyes."  He  who  closes  the 
voice  also  forces  it,  and  the  two  faults  combined 
cause  nodes  (or  calluses)  on  the  vocal  cords,  then 
air  escapes  unused  between  the  vocal  cords  and 

[55] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

the  condition  is  no  longer  one  for  a  vocal  teacher, 
but  for  a  throat  specialist. 

Guttural    Voice. — When    the    epiglottis    is 
raised  too  much,  the  tension  increases  the  thick- 


FIG.  8. — Hollow  or  cavernous  voice. 

ness  at  the  base  of  the  tongue,  taking  up  room 
necessary  for  free  resonance.  There  results  a 
great  confusion  of  closed-in  sound  waves,  the 
voice  becomes  guttural,  cracks  on  high  notes,  and 
has  no  carrying  power  whatsoever. 

Hollow  or  Cavernous  Voice. — The  lowering 
of  the  soft  palate  and  thickening  of  the  back  of 
the  tongue  produce  a  certain  dark,  deep  tone. 
As  this  tone  is  lacking  in  plasiticity  and  life,  it 

[56] 


VOICE  PLACING 

has  no  carrying  power,  and  is  damaging  and 
ineffective. 

Backward  Voice. — This  voice  vibrates  inside, 
carrying  but  little  outside.    The  forward  part  of 


FIG.  9. — Backward  voice. 

the  mouth  seems  to  absorb  the  sound  instead  of 
assisting  it  toward  the  outside.  The  tone  is  dark, 
being  formed  in  throat  and  "mask"  (the  shelf 
formed  at  the  junction  of  the  hard  and  soft 
palate) ;  the  effort  of  vocal  reinforcement  is  at 
the  back  of  the  throat.  This  voice  reminds  one 
of  the  sounds  sent  forth  by  newspaper  vendors. 
Throaty  Voice. — When  the  tone  seems  to 
vibrate  in  the  throat  just  above  the  level  of  the 

[57] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

glottis,  this  pharyngeal  tonal  support  is  called 
"throaty  production,"  the  maximum  of  effort 
being  directed  against  the  guttural  pharyngeal 
surfaces.  This  tone  is  distinguished  by  its  dis- 


FIG.  10. — Throaty  voice. 

agreeable  timbre,  having  a  rasping  quality  which 
suggests  sore  throat,  tonsilitis,  etc. 

Smothered  Voice. — The  "mask,"  so  called, 
is  the  shelf  formed  at  the  junction  of  the  hard 
and  soft  palates.  Tones  directed  too  forcibly  to 
these  particular  surfaces  may  be  divided  into 
two  kinds: 

[58] 


VOICE  PLACING 

Rear  Mask. — Tones  focused  upon  the  rear 
mask,  so  called,  resound  in  the  head,  in  the  re- 
gion of  the  ears,  the  tones  thus  smothered  often  in- 
terfering with  the  proper  functioning  of  the  ears. 

Forward  Mask. — Tones  directed  to  and  sup- 
ported by  the  upper  pharynx  are  really  focused 


FIG.  11. — Smothered  voice.     A — Backward  mask.     B — Forward 
mask. 

in  the  nose,  but  do  not  sound  nasal,  as  they  are 
partly  smothered. 

Yawning  or  Gaping  Voice. — By  reason  of 
opening  the  mouth  very  widely,  as  in  yawning, 
the  verbal  timbre  is  breathy,  the  maximum  of 
resonance  being  in  the  region  of  the  palate  and 
the  eustachian  tubes.  On  account  of  its  poor 

[59] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

timbre,  the  tone  carries  but  little,  and  is  without 
charm  either  verbal  or  vocal.  The  maximum 
sound  is  produced  in  the  back  of  the  throat  and 
in  the  high  pharynx.  This  method  can  be  rec- 


FIG.  12. — Yawning  or  gaping  voice.  FIG.  13. — Nasal  voice. 


ommended  only  for  raising  higher  and  bringing 
nearer  to  forward  accommodation,  a  voice  which 
is  too  much  in  the  throat.  It  is  only  a  means  of 
transition.  It  lends  little  to  the  articulation. 

Humming,  Mouth  Closed. — To  sing  with  the 
mouth  closed  is  bad.  To  place  the  voice  in  a 
position  which  is  not  one  of  natural  and  normal 
phonation  is  absurd,  no  matter  what  the  impres- 

[60] 


VOICE  PLACING 

sion  acquired  through  this  original  process  may 
be.  Humming  is  quite  in  favor  to-day.  The 
singers  who  close  the  high  tones,  thus  preventing 
them  from  carrying,  generally  make  use  of  this 
device  Humming  occasionally  may  help  to  free 
a  throaty  voice,  but  it  is  dangerous  and  may  be 
said  to  be  substituting  one  evil  for  another. 

Snuffling  Voice  (N asillement ) . — Voice  smoth- 
ered behind  the  nose,  and  retained  in  some  way 
in  that  region,  with  strong  vibration  of  all  the 
muscular  parts  of  the  nasal  region,  including  the 
orifiee  of  the  nostrils.  The  air  vibrates  in  the 
nose  with  sharp  sonority.  In  this  production,  the 
excessive  lowering  of  the  soft  palate  prevents 
the  tone's  proper  egress  through  the  mouth,  thus 
forcing  a  maximum  nasal  resonance. 

Nasal  Voice  (Nasonnement) . — Its  sonority 
is  more  deep  than  that  of  the  snuffling  voice  and 
is  less  disagreeable.  Certain  baritones  make  too 
great  use  of  this  kind  of  tonal  support,  to  give 
some  "brass"  to  their  quality,  though  it  shortens 
the  carrying  capacity  of  their  voices.  This  pro- 
duction is  quite  in  favor  by  the  French  singers. 

White  Voice. — This  voice  is  characterized  by 
great  verbal  clarity,  while  lacking,  from  the  vocal 
point  of  view,  in  body  and  sonority.  It  is  pro- 
duced by  excessive  opening  or  widening  of  the 
mouth.  The  voice  takes  an  open  tone  from  the 

[61] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

throat,  giving  the  impression  of  exaggerated 
articulation.  The  buccal  (mouth)  support  is 
entirely  lacking.  'The  tone  is  too  open,  of  a  dis- 
agreeable quality,  and  without  plasticity. 


FIG.  14. — White  voice. 

Tricky  Voice. — A  voice  that,  with  the  aid  of 
wrong  resonance,  obtains  the  impression  of  pos- 
sessing good  tones,  as,  for  instance,  in  singing  a 
high  "C"  with  chest  resonance,  which  in  reality 
seems  to  be  almost  impossible,  the  tenor  will 
darken  his  mixed  notes,  and,  taking  as  funda- 
mental the  resonances  of  the  head,  will  add  also 
the  resonances  of  the  lower  pharynx. 

[62] 


VOICE  PLACING 

Voices  Defective  for  Other  Reasons. — A 
small  voice,  owing  to  organic  insufficiency,  has 
not  good  carrying  power.  Its  size  is  very  lim- 
ited, due  to  weak  respiration  or  weakness  of  the 
vocal  organs.  This  voice,  however,  can  be  im- 
proved in  strength  and  carrying  capacity  by 
training  in  large  rooms,  but  it  will  never  have 
any  professional  value. 

Sharp  Voice. — Sharp  voice  is  often  due  to  or- 
ganic defects,  but  in  most  cases  is  the  result  of 
forcing  the  voice  and  practicing  in  small  rooms. 
Like  the  small  voice,  it  should  be  trained  in  a 
large  room,  and  the  proper  breadth  obtained 
through  exercises  for  elasticity  and  quick  vocali- 
zation. 

Clouded  Voice  (Volx  Moire). — Voice  full  of 
great  variations  in  quality  of  tone.  This  is  not 
mere  variation  of  tone  colors,  but  a  voice  which 
vacillates  very  lightly.  It  is  rather  a  series  of 
contrasts  between  the  successive  tones  of  the 
voice,  now  very  clear,  and  now  very  clouded,  at 
short  intervals. 

Dry  Voice. — The  dryness  of  the  walls  of  the 
mucous  membrane,  which  should  be  smooth  and 
damp,  makes  itself  felt  in  the  quality  of  the  voice. 
The  dry  voice  is  hard  to  hear,  and  is  equally  as 
hard  for  the  singer  to  produce.  It  easily  be- 
comes raucous,  and  has  not  carrying  power.  It 

[63] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

totally  lacks  charm  and  expression.  Medical 
treatment  and  complete  change  of  method  of 
singing  are  necessary. 

Tremolo. — It  seems  that  the  first  admirer  of 
tremolo  was  Ferri,  a  celebrated  Italian  singer  of 
the  last  century.  He  intentionally  sang  tremolo 
on  every  note.  Usually  tremolo  is  the  result 
of  organic  weakness,  sickness,  poor  use  of  the 
breath,  or  stiffness  of  the  vocal  organs.  If  it  is  a 
fault  of  production,  it  can  be  corrected.  Quick 
exercises  only  are  advisable  for  curing  this 
defect. 

Undoubtedly  defects  in  voices  are  far  from 
having  been  completely  listed  above.  There  are 
many,  many  others  with  which  a  vocal  teacher 
comes  in  contact.  Each  pupil,  in  fact,  presents 
a  combination  of  faults  and  every  one  of  these 
defects  must  be  differently  treated.  It  is  im- 
possible to  start  voice  training  until  all  defects 
are  removed. 

NATURAL  TONE  PRODUCTION 

Forward  Voice.— The  mouth,  or  better  stated, 
the  lips,  are  the  last  of  our  vocal  organs  par- 
ticipating in  the  control  of  tones,  before  they 
come  in  contact  with  the  air.  This  fact  sug- 
gested the  calling  of  the  forward  voice  "voice  on 

[64] 


the  lips"  (French,  Voix  labiale)   (Italian,  Voce 
sidle  labbra) . 

The  forward  voice  seems  to  comply  with  the 
vocal  traditions  of  all  the  great  masters,  as  well 
as  meeting  the  requirements  of  to-day. 


FIG.  15. — Forward  voice. 

In  this  voice  the  maximum  of  vocal  intention 
is  directed  upon  the  forward  mouth ;  it  is  a  voice 
free  of  any  constriction  and  is  based  on  perfect 
equilibrium  or  balance  in  the  distribution  of  the 
work  upon  the  breath,  larynx  and  resonating  cav- 
ities. The  voice  carries  even  with  slight  pres- 
sure, and  being  forward,  in  the  region  of  the 
proper  articulators,  maintains  its  verbal  distinct  - 

[65] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

ness.  In  short,  it  is  a  voice  which  demands  the 
least  in  effort,  while  giving  the  most  in  effect. 
Recalling  to  mind  Rubini's  remark  in  the  intro- 
duction of  this  book,  it  is  the  only  voice  which  per- 
mits singing  on  the  interest  and  conserving  the 
capital  of  the  voice. 

The  voice  thus  produced  can  be  sent  in  any 
direction  the  singer  requires.  It  is  also  ideal  for 
public  speakers,  etc. ;  in  fact  for  all  who  use  their 
voices  professionally.  In  this  production  the 
tone  is  focused  entirely  outside  and  away  from 
the  singer.  The  total  abandonment  of  all  "in- 
ward" thoughts,  which  tend  invariably  to  con- 
strict tone  production,  is  exemplified  in  the  men- 
tal attitude  of  directing  the  tone  to  its  point 
of  destination,  in  the  same  way  as  the  marksman 
takes  aim  at  a  target.  In  this  way  our  ear  learns 
to  grasp  the  sound  at  its  destination  instead  of 
at  its  origination;  the  voice  adjusts  itself  spon- 
taneously and  automatically  to  the  mental  atti- 
tude. It  is  the  free  voice.  To  the  hearer  this 
voice  gives  the  sensation  of  coming  from  the 
center  of  the  audience.  It  is  a  voice  that  will 
surety  and  always  master  the  conditions  of  all 
halls  or  auditoriums. 

Voice  has  value  only  at  the  point  to  which  it 
is  addressed,  namely,  the  audience.  Sound  is 
judged  from  the  same  angle  as  the  scenery,  the 

[66] 


make-up  of  the  actors,  the  tableau  effects,  etc. 
Just  as  it  does  not  matter  how  these  things  look 
"close  up,"  the  test  of  the  voice  is  its  sound  at 
the  required  distance.  It  can  no  more  be  prop- 
erly heard  near  by  than  can  an  oil  painting  be 
closely  scrutinized.  Where  it  is  intended  that  the 


FIG.  16. — Full  voice. 

voice  should  have  a  maximum  of  effect,  there 
is  the  place  at  or  from  which  the  voice  should  be 
analyzed. 

The  Full  Voice. — This  production  is  the  same 
as  that  of  the  "forward  mouth"  with  the  excep- 
tion that  it  is  deepened  and  widened  to  embrace 
maximum  power.  It  is  characterized  by  a  proper 

[67] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

balance  of  vocal  effort,  distributed  among  all  the 
resonating  surfaces.  It  combines  the  maximum 
of  effect  with  the  minimum  of  effort.  The  tone 
carries,  with  all  its  good  qualities.  In  this  voice 
it  is  impossible  for  the  hearer  as  well  as  for  the 
singer  to  know  what  parts  of  the  vocal  organs 
give  the  most  powerful  reinforcement,  the  vocal 
equilibrium  is  so  well  maintained. 

VOCAL  HYGIENE  FROM  THE  MUSICAL 
POINT  OF  VIEW 

A  well-placed  voice  is  not  afraid  of  work,  does 
not  suffer  from  it,  and  is  not  subject  to  disagree- 
able professional  accidents.  A  voice  is  well 
placed  only  when  its  strength  is  in  harmony  with 
its  carrying  power.  It  is  all  a  question  of  secur- 
ing natural  tone  production. 

How  to  Practice. — Sing  according  to  the 
voice  you  have — not  the  one  you  have  not.  Do 
not  persist  in  practicing  for  notes  not  yet  ma- 
tured, not  ready,  for  it  will  result  in  breaks  in 
the  voice,  and  you  may  lose  that  note  forever — 
along  with  others.  Develop  and  make  sure  of 
your  "G," — the  "A"  will  appear  later.  Practice 
easily  and  take  time  to  develop  your  range,  so 
that  gradually  you  will  gain  a  voice  which  will 
be  equalized,  healthy  and  sure  and  of  sufficient 
range. 

[68] 


VOICE  PLACING 

Do  not  work  when  fatigued  or  if  you  are  not 
sure  of  yourself.  But  if  you  feel  yourself  in 
form,  practice  as  long  as  you  consider  you  are 
progressing. 

Do  not  measure  the  strength  of  the  voice  by 
the  effort  that  it  costs.  And  at  the  least  con- 
straint, at  the  least  difficulty,  release  the  voice, — 
sing  farther  off  still  (not  stronger) . 

When  the  voice  seems  as  if  it  were  going  to 
fail  you,  don't  "pinch." 

Vocalize  in  full  timbre  upon  all  vowels,  and 
with  as  much  more  "carry"  as  you  sing  more 
quickly  or  higher. 

The  testiture  or  easy  range  has  a  certain  center 
of  gravity  which  by  no  means  should  be  sacri- 
ficed for  the  notes  at  the  extreme  ends  of  the 
voice.  This  center  of  gravity  in  the  testiture  may 
fall  or  rise  during  practice;  but  Nature  must 
attend  to  that  herself.  Depend  upon  it,  she  will 
not  be  paralyzed  in  her  movements  when  the 
voice  is  used  in  a  free  manner. 

For  every  strained  effect,  the  singer  must  pay, 
and  pay  dearly.  Mistakes  in  practicing  are  not 
easily  repaired. 

When  studying  songs,  if  you  find  a  difficult 
phrase,  for  which  your  voice  is  not  sufficiently 
advanced,  change  the  song.  By  continuous 
practice  on  a  phrase,  song,  or  aria,  for  which  the 

[69] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

voice  is  not  ready,  you  will  injure  it  seriously. 
The  voice  develops  by  practicing  things  it  finds 
easy,  and  is  injured  by  any  premature  effort. 

How  Long  to  Practice. — The  necessity  for 
repose  in  vocal  practice  depends  mostly  upon 
the  expenditure  of  strength.  It  is  possible  to 
practice  a  long  time  without  danger,  but  with 
small  intervals  of  rest.  The  human  voice  can 
stand  easily  several  hours'  work  daily,  but  only 
when  the  tone  is  free.  The  darkened  and 
wrongly  reinforced  voices  are  a  great  strain 
upon  the  muscles.  Free  exercises  develop  the 
free  voice.  Do  not  fail  to  practice  in  the  morn- 
ings, always  remembering  to  sing  "freely." 

How  Long  to  Study. — The  celebrated  singer 
and  vocal  teacher  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
Pacchierotti,  when  asked  by  his  pupil,  the  great 
tenor,  Rubini,  about  the  length  of  time  neces- 
sary for  the  study,  answered:  "The  study  of  our 
art  is  too  long  for  our  life.  When  young  we 
have  the  voice  but  lack  the  schooling,  afterward 
we  get  the  schooling  but  lose  the  voice." 

When  Should  the  Vocal  Education  Be 
Started? — If  the  pupil  does  not  abuse  the  va- 
rious vocal  reinforcements,  if  he  endeavors  to 
develop  and  not  to  change  the  quality  or  timbre 
of  his  voice,  if  he  tries  to  sing  "wide — spacious- 
far  and  large"  without  trying  to  sing  strongly, 

[70] 


VOICE  PLACING 

if  he  sings  with  the  voice  which  nature  at  that 
period  has  given  him  without  trying  prema- 
turely to  gain  volume  and  range,  something  that 
is  dependent  upon  the  maturity  of  the  body— 
in  other  words,  if  the  pupil  sings  only  with  a 
free  voice — the  sooner  he  or  she  starts  vocal 
education  the  better. 

It  is  possible  to  sing  well  and  without  harm 
even  though  the  pupil  be  not  entirely  matured. 
It  is  logical  that  a  perfectly  natural  vocal  exer- 
cise cannot  fail  to  assist  in  the  development  of 
a  voice  destined  for  a  singing  career.  But  when 
a  wrong  method  of  singing  is  applied,  a  young 
and  not  entirely  developed  throat  will  soon  and 
forever  be  ruined. 

Every  premature  effort  to  impose  upon  the 
voice  notes  for  which  it  is  not  ready  results  in 
disaster.  On  the  contrary,  however,  practicing 
in  free  voice-  will  progressively  add  more  and 
more  notes  to  the  range  without  danger  to  those 
you  already  have. 


CHAPTER  IV 

PECULIARITIES   OF  TONE   INCIDENT  TO  DIFFERENT 
NATIONALITIES 

Music  in  every  branch  is  international,  though 
still  maintaining  national  peculiarities  in  mu- 
sical form  as  well  as  in  vocal  tone  and  method. 
For  that  reason,  in  this  chapter  I  have  thought 
it  well  to  treat  briefly  the  vocal  characteristics 
of  different  countries,  in  the  hope  that  it  will  be 
of  interest  to  the  newcomers  in  the  profession. 
Indeed,  considering  the  enormous  influence 
exerted  upon  tone  production  alone  by  varying 
languages  and  climates,  to  say  nothing  of  na- 
tional traditions,  the  usefulness  of  such  knowl- 
edge can  hardly  be  overestimated. 

Italian  Tone. — For  centuries  the  Italians  were 
recognized  in  all  the  world  as  the  best  singers. 
They  were  and  are  to-day  the  best  paid  and 
most  admired  of  all  the  nationalities  for  their 
purity  of  tone  and  their  powers  of  lyric  expres- 
sion. The  words  bel  canto  are  known  all  over  the 
world  to  those  interested  in  music  and  singing. 
Bel  canto  means  "beautiful  singing,"  and  de- 
scribes not  a  method  or  system  of  producing 

[72] 


PECULIARITIES  OF  TONE 

tone  but  rather  the  kind  of  tone  produced.  In 
my  opinion  the  glory  for  the  development  of 
that  type  of  beautiful  singing  which  our  gen- 
erations have  learned  to  call  bel  canto  should  be 
equally  divided  between  the  classical  Italian  com- 
posers and  singers  of  the  earlier  periods. 

The  characteristics  peculiar  to  the  composers 
of  the  seventeenth,  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  cen- 
turies are:  clarity  and  simplicity  of  construc- 
tion, serenity  and  depth  of  feeling.  Caldara, 
Bononcini,  Benedetto  Marcello,  Lotti,  Martini, 
Paisiello,  Pergolesi,  Scarlatti,  Cimarosa,  Bellini, 
Donizetti,  Rossini,  Verdi,  etc.,  all  carefully  ob- 
served in  their  compositions  the  possibilities  and 
characteristics  of  the  voices  for  which  they  were 
writing.  In  their  works  the  words  and  melodies 
were  welded  to  form  one  indissoluble  whole. 
Little  wonder  that  singers  educated  under  the 
influence  of  a  school  of  composition,  simple,  un- 
affected, yet  replete  with  genius,  guided  by  real 
masters  patient  and  willing  to  work,  living  in  a 
wonderful  atmosphere  and  climate,  speaking  a 
language  which  is  in  itself  a  song,  became  that 
which  the  composers  wanted  them  to  be — masters 
of  bel  canto  01  beautiful  singing.  Such  is  the 
world's  heritage  from  those  fathers  of  the  Italian 
school  of  singing. 

There  is  no  precise,  technical  way  to  describe 
[78] 


THE  SIXGER  AXD  HIS  ART 

or  literally  to  photograph  an  emission  of  vocal 
tone,  which  explains  why  our  generations  have 
not  and  cannot  have  an  exact  idea  of  the  tone  pro- 
duction of  the  golden  days  of  Italy's  most  ar- 
tistic singing. 

With  all  my  love,  admiration  and  gratitude  for 
Italy,  the  country  which  gave  me  my  start  and 
the  happiest  moments  of  my  career,  I  claim  that 
the  principles  which  led  to  the  creation  of  bel 
canto  (beautiful  singing)  are  not  of  Italian  in- 
vention or  creation.  Bel  canto  exists  in  all  the 
world,  in  Russia,  France,  America,  Spain,  etc.— 
a  fact  well  proved  by  the  great  singers  of  those 
countries.  Bel  canto  is  the  property  of  that 
great  invisible  power — Nature.  Italians  were 
the  first  to  comply  with  her  laws  and  so  were 
rewarded  with  the  glory  which  their  singing 
justly  brought  to  their  country. 

The  logical  conception  of  a  beautiful,  or  call 
it  bel  canto,  tone  is  a  tone  which  requires  the  least 
of  effort  and  gives  the  maximum  effect;  a  tone  in 
which  vocal  effort  is  distributed  equally  to  all  the 
active  and  resonating  surfaces  of  the  human 
throat;  a  tone  in  which  it  is  as  impossible  for  the 
singer  as  for  the  hearer  to  detect  which  part  of 
the  vocal  organ  gives  the  most  powerful  rein- 
forcement, the  vocal  equilibrium  being  so  well 
maintained;  a  tone  in  which  articulation  is  in  per- 

[74] 


PECULIARITIES  OF  TONE 

feet  harmony  with  all  other  functions  of  the  vocal 
apparatus,  and  is  easily  understood  by  the  audi- 
ence; a  tone  which  produces  only  outside  effect, 
in  which  the  whole  room,  kail  or  auditorium  is 
properly  sonorized.  In  short,  a  tone  which  will 
deliver  the  melodic  message  in  the  way  nature 
intends. 

This  is  my  opinion  of  the  bel  canto  or  beau- 
tiful tone,  and  1  repeat,  it  can  only  be  produced 
naturally  and  in  accordance  with  the  singer's 
individuality. 

French  Tone. — The  French  classical  com- 
poser, like  his  Italian  brother,  had  much  respect 
for  the  human  voice.  The  floating,  melodious 
line  was  of  first  importance,  while  the  accom- 
paniment, although  ingeniously  arranged,  was 
of  secondary  consideration.  With  the  exception 
of  the  heroic,  dramatic  operas  of  Meyerbeer, 
written  for  exceptional  voices  (and  perhaps  a 
few  others  of  minor  importance),  Gounod,  Bizet, 
Berlioz,  Offenbach,  Massenet  and  scores  of 
others  have  given  due  consideration  to  the  pos- 
sibilities and  characteristics  of  the  human  voice. 

The  well  cultivated  French  tone  has  the  same 
qualities  as  the  good  Italian  tone.  It  is  round, 
well  sustamed,  even  and  has  splendid  carrying 
capacity.  To  an  untrained  ear  it  may  sound 
different,  but  the  difference  is  the  result  of  the 

[75] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

French  language,  which  has  an  abundance  of 
nasal  sounds,  the  proper  pronunciation  of  which 
is  very  favorable  for  tone  production. 

German  Tone. — Singing  one  night  a  heavy 
Wagnerian  part  and  the  next  some  light  operetta 
is  certainly  the  primary  cause  of  the  present 
vocal  conditions  in  Germany.  Classification  of 
voices  by  their  timbre  and  temperament  is  prac- 
tically unknown  in  Germany.  No  distinction 
seems  to  be  made  there  between  the  lyric  and 
dramatic  qualifications  of  singers.  They  must 
sing  everything  in  the  repertoire  and  even  the 
contracts  are  worded  that  way.  "Everything" 
is  rather  embracive,  all  will  agree,  and  as  there 
is  no  human  being  able  to  do  "everything"  well, 
some  vocal  incongruities  quite  naturally  arise. 

From  a  purely  vocal  point  of  view  the  Ger- 
man language  lends  itself  little  to  singing, 
though  I  admit  there  are  some  differences  of 
opinion  upon  that  point. 

It  is,  however,  my  belief  that  to  some  extent 
Wagnerian  music  is  responsible  for  the  deca- 
dence of  German  vocal  tone. 

Singers  of  such  parts  as  Kundry,  Siglinde, 
Isolde,  etc.,  soon  feel  and  show  the  effects.  The 
beauty  of  the  voice  gradually  disappears,  the 
necessary  velvet  in  the  quality  is  suppressed,  the 
whole  vocal  machinery  loses  its  freedom,  and  the 

[76] 


PECULIARITIES  OF  TONE 

constricted,  tired  throat  produces  a  tone  to  which 
Slavonic  and  Latin  races  can  hardly  listen.  It 
is  a  fact  that  in  Wagner's  works  the  instru- 
mentation and  the  orchestra  are  given  first 
thought,  and  the  singer's  tone  and  effects  are 
secondary. 

The  masterpieces,  of  Wagner  have  created  a 
new  school  of  music  which  considers  the  human 
voice  from  a  different  point  of  view  than  did 
Schumann,  Schubert  or  Mozart.  The  present 
German  composer  lacks  certainly  the  genius  of 
the  creator  of  the  Wagnerian  school,  but  seems 
to  consider  a  human  throat  as  an  additional  wind 
instrument  in  the  orchestra. 

The  German  classical  composers  have  all  the 
vocal  characteristics  of  the  Italian  and  French 
of  that  period.  Therefore,  beneficial  to  the  voice, 
yet  in  the  operatic  field  at  present  it  is  hard  for 
a  singer  to  fight  for  recognition  against  a  score 
of  trumpets,  trombones  and  drums.  From  the 
vocal  point  of  view,  conditions  in  Germany  are 
discouraging;  they  ought  even  to  be  summed  up 
as  instrumentally  overpowering. 

Hebrew  Tone. — The  cantor  can  be  termed 
the  real  preserver  of  Hebrew  melodies.  The 
operatic  and  concert  stage  have  heard  some  won- 
derful Jewish  singers,  but  the  individuality  of 
their  race  was  subordinated  to  the  requirements 

[77] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

of  the  art  as  embodied  in  the  different  languages 
in  which  they  had  to  sing  and  consequently  lost. 

The  cantor's  way  of  singing,  as  also  the  music 
itself,  is  traditional.  A  special  school  for  cantor 
singers  does  not  exist,  but  each  cantor  gathers 
around  himself  a  few  good  voices,  to  whom  he 
imparts  his  knowledge.  The  training  is  done  by 
the  simple  method  of  imitation. 

The  voice  of  an  average  cantor  is  very  expres- 
sive. A  certain  sharpness  of  glottic  quality  is 
felt  throughout  the  range.  Vocal  effort  is  con- 
centrated on  the  glottis  and  the  vocal  cords,  in- 
stead of  being  distributed  all  over  the  parts  of  the 
vocal  organ.  The  voice  rings  more  than  carries, 
and  when  brought  out  invariably  loses  that  which 
it  gains  in  sonorousness.  The  verbal  tone  is 
largely  sacrificed  for  the  vocal  effect.  This  pro- 
duction causes  nervousness  of  the  vocal  cords, 
with  a  consequent  escape  of  unsonorized  air. 

A  cantor  who  wishes  to  impress  his  congre- 
gation.must  bring  his  voice  as  near  to  the  lament 
as  possible,  for  the  Hebrew  composition  was  in- 
spired by  suffering.  The  lament  is  produced  by 
a  certain  spasmodic  action  of  the  vocal  machin- 
ery, similar  to  the  cry  of  a  child.  A  child  can 
scream  or  sing  the  whole  day  without  injury, — 
so  long  as  its  voice  is  manifesting  joy  and  hap- 
piness, but  the  same  child  will  become  hoarse 

[78] 


very  quickly  when  crying  in  sorrow  or  anger. 
This  illustrates  the  principal  reason  why  cantors' 
voices  wear  out  quickly.  The  voice  of  an  old 
cantor  (there  are  exceptions,  of  course)  is  full 
of  tremolo  and  often  flat.  Their  particular  style 
of  music  does  not  permit  them  to  sing  properly 
and  with  effect  the  modern  standard  concert  and 
operatic  music.  The  unnatural,  anti-physiologi- 
cal use  of  the  vocal  organ  is  easily  noticeable  after 
the  cantor  has  sung  a  few  selections.  His  throat 
becomes  overheated  and  manifests  a  slight  irrita- 
tion sometimes  causing  a  cough.  But  nothing 
can  possibly  diminish  the  beauty  and  value  of 
Hebrew  religious  songs. 

Russian  Tone. — Turgenev,  one  of  the  greatest 
Russian  writers,  characterizes  the  Russian  folk- 
song thus:  "The  aching,  melancholy  song  which 
wanders  from  sea  to  sea  throughout  the  length 
and  breadth  of  Russia  will,  once  having  been 
heard,  forever  echo  in  your  heart  and  haunt  the 
recesses  of  your  memory." 

But  not  always  is  Russian  folksong  full  of 
melancholy;  in  fact  real  Russian  folksong,  cen- 
turies old,  is  rather  full  of  wildness  and  rugged- 
ness,  characterized  by  frequent  and  sudden  dy- 
namic gradations  and  changes  in  rhythm.  The 
melancholy  song  which  Turgenev  describes  comes 
from  Little  Russia  or  Ukrania. 

[79] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

The  Slavonic  is  probably  the  most  emotional 
music  in  the  world,  and  the  older  its  melody,  the 
greater  the  spirit  of  romance.  From  the  very 
beginning  of  history  the  Russians  have  been  a 
singing  people.  They  have  worked  and  danced 
and  played  to  the  accompaniment  of  music.  This 
may  be  the  reason  why  Russia  possesses  the  most 
wonderful  untrained  choruses.  It  is  indeed  a 
pleasure  to  hear  the  deep  and  manly  basso  (and 
even  contra-basso)  voices  united  in  peculiar  com- 
binations with  fine  tenors  who  are  not  afraid  to 
use  often  their  falsetto  tones. 

Much  time  is  devoted  in  Russia  to  the  training 
of  church  choirs,  and  the  singing  is  an  integral 
part  of  the  service. 

The  voice  which  is  liked  best  in  Russia  is  the 
basso.  The  principal  singer  in  a  Russian  church 
must  have  a  speaking  and  singing  voice  of  thun- 
der. These  voices  are  usually  short  in  range,  ind, 
owing  to  low  vibrations,  have  a  very  dark  and 
chesty  quality.  Their  carrying  power  is  limited. 
.  The  love  of  Russians  for  the  basso  voices  had 
a  certain  influence  on  the  Russian  operatic  score. 
Contrary  to  the  operatic  habit  of  other  nations, 
in  which  nearly  always  the  tenors  are  given  the 
honors  as  principal  characters,  the  Russian  op- 
eratic composers  have  written  many  works  for 
bassos  and  dramatic  baritones. 

[80] 


PECULIARITIES  OF  TONE 

The  Russian  cultivated  tone  seems  to  be  placed 
not  entirely  in  the  front  of  the  mouth,  and  is  sup- 
ported strongly  by  chest  and  mask  resonance, 
a  sort  of  "bronze"  quality  being  obtained  at  the 
expense  of  carrying  powers. 

Little  Russia  furnishes  almost  all  the  tenors 
to  the  Russian  operatic  stage. 

The  tone  production  of  Russian  women  singers 
can  be  compared  to  that  of  the  Italians. 

The  Russian  language  answers  all  vocal  re- 
quirements splendidly,  and  is  of  great  help  to 
the  singer. 

Polish  Tone. — One  hundred  and  fifty  years 
of  slavery  in  a  nation  of  thirty  million  popula- 
tion, divided  by  three  oppressors,  forbidden 
to  sing  or  play  its  national  music,  has  had  but 
little  effect  on  the  musical  development  of  Po- 
land. 

The  names  Chopin,  Moniuszko,  Wieniawski, 
Paderewski,  Stojowski,  Hoffman,  are  sufficient 
to  give  Poland  one  of  the  leading  places  among 
the  musical  nations  of  the  world.  Poland  has 
several  first-class  opera  companies  and  symphony 
orchestras.  Of  all  the  European  folksongs,  Po- 
lish folksongs  are  certainly  the  richest  in  melody 
and  variety  of  rhythm. 

Although  a  distinctively  Polish  tone  produc- 
tion does  not  exist,  Poland  has  given  to  the  world 

[81] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

such  singers  as  the  inimitable  songbird,  Madame 
Sembrich,  the  de  Reszke  brothers,  Leliwa,  Didur 
and  many,  many  others.  In  Italy,  France,  Rus- 
sia and  Germany,  Polish  singers  are  highly  re- 
spected and  loved. 

A  cultivated  Polish  singer  has  all  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  Italian  and  French  artists.  Poles 
are  known  all  over  the  world  as  fine  musicians 
and  linguists,  the  latter  accomplishment  being  in 
a  measure  the  result  of  the  foreign  oppression 
suffered  by  Poland. 

English  Tone. — In  England,  ballad,  oratorio, 
church  and  concert  singing  is  much  preferred  to 
grand  opera. 

The  temperament  of  the  English  people  is 
very  different  from  that  of  the  Latin  races  and 
this  fact  certainly  is  manifested  in  the  musical 
appreciativeness. 

The  Italian  spontaneous  nervous  singing  is 
little  cared  for  there.  The  English  public  likes 
a  smoother  style,  more  finished  in  detail. 

De  gustibus  non  est  disputandum. —  (There 
can  be  no  discussion  regarding  tastes.)  This 
old  Latin  proverb  can  be  fairly  applied  in  this 
case. 

No  single  person  has  sufficient  knowledge  and 
impartiality  to  justify  him  in  passing  judg- 
ment on  the  question  as  to  which  of  the  national 

[82] 


PECULIARITIES  OF  TONE 

tastes  is  more  nearly  musically  correct  and  inter- 
esting. 

England's  vocal  art  has  a  past  of  its  own — 
glorious  and  rich.  Together  with  Canada  and 
Australia,  she  has  given  to  the  world  an  unusual 
number  of  splendid  singers. 

The  habit  of  combining  sight  reading  with 
singing  seems  to  be  very  much  in  favor  in  Eng- 
land, and  singers  often  sing  with  their  scores  in 
hand. 

Irish  Tone. — The  marvelous  folksongs  of  this 
little  country  are  undoubtedly  responsible  for  the 
fine  vocal  talent  produced  by  Ireland.  I  con- 
sider Ireland's  greatest  tenor,  John  McCor- 
mack,  a  real  master  of  bel  canto.  Anybody 
listening  to  him  will  recognize  the  qualities 
possessed  by  the  glorious  old  Italian  Masters. 

Scandinavian  Tone. — The  musical  culture  of 
Scandinavians  is  very  old.  As  a  result  Scandi- 
navia has  produced  such  geniuses  as  Grieg,  Sind- 
ing,  Lassen,  Kjerulf,  etc. 

Italian  and  German  influence  on  the  music 
of  Scandinavian  countries  is  noticeable.  In  the 
sixteenth  century,  G.  Wasa  engaged  for  his  court 
Italian  singers  who  remained  there  for  many 
years. 

In  1782  Gustav  III  constructed  the  Opera 
House  in  Stockholm. 

[83] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

Of  the  score  of  especially  fine  singers  produced 
by  the  Scandinavian  countries  the  most  cele- 
brated seems  to  have  been  Jenny  Lind,  pupil  of 
Manuel  Garcia,  and  known  all  over  the  world  as 
the  "Swedish  Nightingale." 

A  mathematical  exactness  is  demanded  from 
singers  and  musicians  there,  and  the  public  often 
listens  to  the  operas  with  the  scores  in  hand. 

Tyrolese  Yodeling. — There  is  a  special  and 
very  characteristic  kind  of  singing,  little  known 
in  America  but  very  much  admired  by  the  peo- 
ples of  certain  parts  of  Germany,  Austria  and 
Switzerland,  which  is  called  Tyrolese  Yodeling. 
It  consists  of  rapid  and  sharp  jumps  in  octaves 
and  arpeggi.  To  foreigners  it  sounds  effective 
and  sympathetic.  It  is,  however,  very  destructive 
to  the  voice,  as  in  the  high  notes  the  larynx  is  in  a 
too  widened  position,  and  in  the  low  notes  the 
tension  on  the  trachea  is  far  too  great.  Many 
of  the  yodelers  have  markedly  hoarse  speaking 
voices. 

The  Tyrolese  yodelers  often  apply  pressure 
to  the  larynx,  as  they  claim  it  helps  in  the  pro- 
duction of  the  very  high  head  tones. 

Oriental  Tone. — Arabs,  Syrians,  Greeks,  Per- 
sians, Turks,  Hindoos,  etc.,  have  a  music  of  their 
own.  No  matter  how  hard  we  may  try,  we  shall 
not  be  able  to  enter  into  their  melodies.  The 

[84] 


PECULIARITIES  OF  TONE 

songs  we  know  under  the  names  of  oriental  mel- 
odies have  nothing  to  do  with  their  music,  just 
as  the  "Geisha"  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  music 
of  Japan. 

My  analysis  of  their  tone  is  based  on  observa- 
tion of  several  prominent  oriental  singers  during 
my  phonograph  experience. 

Although  their  vocal  tone  has  nothing  of  in- 
terest for  us,  except  for  analytical  scientific  pur- 
poses, I  advise  all  to  hear  some  of  the  oriental 
records.1  Their  voices  are  very  much  pinched. 
The  women  sing  in  a  chesty,  throaty  manner  and 
when  hearing  these  singers  one  involuntarily  feels 
that  their  voice  may  break  at  any  moment. 

Spain  and  Portugal. — For  centuries  Spain 
and  Portugal  have  furnished  talent  to  the  oper- 
atic centers  of  the  world.  The  opera  companies 
are  highly  patronized  there,  and  strongly  sup- 
ported by  the  governments. 

Garcia,  the  inventor  of  the  laryngoscope  (and 
rightly  called  "father  of  the  vocal  art"),  was  a 
Spaniard,  as  were  Malibran,  Viardot,  Gayarre, 
etc.  Spain  seems  to  have  specialized  in  supply- 
ing tenors  and  coloratura  sopranos  to  the  oper- 
atic stage. 

The  Spanish  singers  have  the  same  character- 

i  Every    nationality   is   represented    in   the   catalogues   of    the 
prominent  talking  machine  companies. 

[85] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

istics  as  the  Italians — their  work  lying  along  the 
same  line  of  opera. 

The  Spanish  language,  full  of  hard  vowels,  is 
not  favorable  for  tone  production. 

South  American  Tone. — South  America,  con- 
sisting mostly  of  Spanish-speaking  countries,  is 
in  general  very  musical,  and  devoted  to  opera. 
In  paying  the  singers,  South  America  is  a  dan- 
gerous rival  of  her  northern  sister.  The  Colon  of 
Buenos  Aires  seems  to  be  the  most  beautiful  thea- 
ter in  the  world,  but  unfortunately,  possesses 
poor  acoustic  properties.  There  are  always  sev- 
eral traveling  Italian  Opera  Companies  in  South 
American  countries. 

American  Tone. — It  would  be  a  great  injus- 
tice to  America  if  all  the  poor  singing  heard  here 
should  be  called  "American  Tone."  This  tone  is 
the  result  of  misplaced  American  confidence,  and 
is  fabricated  generally  in  the  studios  of  Euro- 
pean or  American  "would-be"  vocal  masters. 

America  is  full  of  exponents  of  the  singing  of 
methods  of  different  countries,  and  we  have  vocal 
teachers  of  all  nationalities,  consequently  there 
is  nothing  which  can  be  pointed  to  with  assurance 
as  "American  tone." 

Americans  have  all  the  necessary  qualifications 
of  great  singers — splendid  voices,  education,  mu- 
sical feeling  and  ambition. 

[86] 


PECULIARITIES  OF  TONE 

Already  America  holds  a  very  high  position 
among  the  nations  as  a  producer  of  great  sing- 
ers, and  I  am  quite  sure  that  this  country  shortly 
will  take  the  lead.  I  see  much  more  talent  now 
than  I  did  ten  years  ago  when  I  first  sang 
with  the  Boston  Opera  Company,  while  it  is 
equally  true  that  on  my  last  visit  to  the  continent 
I  saw  much  less  talent  all  over  Europe  than  there 
was  ten  years  ago. 


CHAPTER  V 

ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE  OF  THE 
VOCAL-ORGANS 

BY  JOHN  J.  LEVBARG,  M.D. 
(Oto  laryngologist} 

ANATOMY 

The  Larynx  is  shaped  like  a  box  and  is  made 
up  of  muscular,  membranous  and  cartilaginous 
substance;  it  is  part  of  the  neck,  behind  and  be- 
low the  base  of  the  tongue.  The  upper  opening 
of  the  larynx  is  covered  by  a  lid  known  as  the 
epiglottis.  The  lower  aperture  communicates 
with  the  trachea,  with  which  the  larynx  is  con- 
tinuous. 

The  larynx  is  composed  of  nine  cartilages,  all 
of  which  are  connected  by  substances  known  as 
ligaments.  These  cartilages  are  named  as  fol- 
lows: thyroid,  cricoid,  arytenoid.  Cartilages 
of  Santorini  and  Wrisberg,  arid  the  epiglottis. 
The  thyroid  is  the  largest  and  the  angle  of  its 
two  wings  forms  the  prominence  in  the  front 
of  the  neck  known  as  the  Adam's  apple. 

The  cricoid  is  ring-shaped  and  is  situated  be- 
low the  thyroid.  The  epiglottis  lies  behind  the 

[88] 


tongue  and  is  the  cover  of  the  upper  aperture 
of  the  larynx.  During  respiration  and  singing  it 
stands  vertical,  but  during  the  act  of  deglutition 
(swallowing)  it  closes  the  laryngeal  opening. 
This  action  is  involuntary. 

The  arytenoids  articulate  with  the  cricoid  car- 
tilage and  are  the  most  important  as  regards  the 
function  of  the  larynx,  because  they  dilate  or 
make  narrow  the  space  between  the  true  vocal 
cords.  The  true  vocal  cords  are  attached  to  these 
cartilages. 

The  vocal  cords  contain  the  inferior  thyro — 
arytenoid  ligaments,  which  are  elastic  in  charac- 
ter and  run  from  the  vocal  process  of  the  ary- 
tenoid to  the  inner  surface  of  the  thyroid  carti- 
lage. The  space  between  both  cords  is  known  as 
the  glottis.  During  phonation  both  cords  ap- 
proach each  other  and  the  space  (glottis)  be- 
comes a  straight  chink.  On  taking  a  deep  breath, 
the  vocal  cords  separate  from  each  other. 

The  muscles  of  the  larynx  consist  of  two 
groups:  the  external  and  the  internal.  The  ex- 
ternal depress  or  elevate  the  larynx  and  the  in- 
ternal by  their  action  regulate  the  width  of  the 
glottis;  they  also  regulate  the  tension  of  the  vocal 
cords  and  the  action  of  the  epiglottis. 

This  important  tube  has  two  functions,  namely, 
respiration  and  phonation.  During  quiet  breath- 

[89] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

ing  the  space  between  both  cords  forms  a  tri- 
angle. Above  the  epiglottis  acts  as  a  cover  and 
prevents  food  from  entering  into  the  larynx. 
The  important  part  played  by  the  larynx  is  the 
production  of  voice.  The  vocal  cords  lie  in  the 
larynx  like  a  double  membranous  reed-pipe.  To 
produce  a  sound,  the  volume  of  the  exhaled  air 
must  be  of  sufficient  strength  to  cause  the  vocal 
cords  to  come  together  and  vibrate.  The  vocal 
cords  differ  in  the  female  and  the  male.  The 
female  cords  are  shorter  and  thinner  and  the  male 
cords  are  longer  and  thicker. 

Voice  is  produced  by  the  vibration  of  the  vocal 
cords  due  to  the  expiratory  blast  of  air  emitted 
from  the  lungs  and  the  quality  or  resonance  is 
reinforced  by  the  resonating  chambers,  i.  e., 
pharynx,  mouth,  nasal  chambers  and  accessory 
cavities.  In  voice  there  are  three  properties  to 
be  found,  namely,  intensity,  pitch,  and  quality. 
The  intensity  depends  upon  the  amplitude  of  the 
vibrations  of  the  vocal  cords,  the  force  of  the  air 
and  the  resonating  cavities.  Pitch  depends  upon 
the  same  elements  as  in  any  vibrating  string;  such 
as  length,  tension  and  thickness.  In  the  female, 
the  voice  is  of  a  higher  pitch  than  the  male  be- 
cause of  the  lesser  length  of  the  bands  in  the 
female. 

The  quality  or  timbre  of  the  human  voice  is 
[90] 


ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  HYGIENE 

due  to  the  fundamental  and  the  overtones  pro- 
duced by  those  cavities  of  the  head  and  the  chest 
that  act  as  resonance  chambers. 

The  human  vocal  instrument  is  made  up  of: 

(1)  motor-lungs;  (2)  vibrator — vocal  cords;  (3) 
resonator — mouth,  pharynx,  nasal  and  head  cav- 
ities; (4)  articulator — tongue,  lips  and  teeth ;  (5) 
thought — brain. 

The  Mouth. — The  mouth  is  an  oval-shaped 
cavity  and  consists  of  the  vestibule  and  the  cav- 
ity proper.  The  vestibule  is  the  slit  between  the 
lips  and  the  cheeks  in  front  and  the  gums  and 
the  teeth  behind.  The  cavity  proper  extends 
from  the  teeth  in  front  to  the  fauces  behind.  The 
roof  is  formed  by  the  palate  and  the  floor  by  the 
tongue.  The  lips  are  the  two  fleshy  folds  which 
surround  the  orifice  of  the  mouth,  the  cheek  form- 
ing its  sides  and  being  continuous  with  the  lips 
in  front. 

A  great  factor  in  producing  good  resonance 
is  the  oral  cavity  or  mouth  proper;  its  intrinsic 
and  divers  muscular  actions  have  a  marked  effect 
on  resonance.  The  function  of  this  important 
cavity  consists  of  three  distinctive  and  impor- 
tant actions:  (1)  it  is  the  beginning  of  the  ali- 
mentary canal,  in  which  the  food  is  masticated; 

(2)  it  is  the  chief  organ  of  taste;  (3)  it  forms, 
with  the  pharynx,  the  resonator  of  articulate 

[911 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

speech  and  singing.  Resonance  may  be  changed, 
especially  by  the  tongue,  cheeks,  lips  and  soft 
palate. 

The  Palate. — The  palate  forms  the  roof  of  the 
mouth  and  consists  of  the  hard  palate  in  front 
and  the  soft  palate  behind.  The  hard  palate  is 
stationary,  but  the  soft  palate  is  movable  and  is 
suspended  from  the  back  of  the  hard  palate, 
thereby  forming  an  incomplete  partition  between 
the  oral  cavity  and  the  pharynx.  The  conical- 
shaped  structure  which  hangs  down  from  the 
middle  of  the  soft  palate  is  called  the  uvula. 
The  soft  palate  acts  as  a  regulating  valve  to  the 
important  cavity  and  accessory  cells  and  is  in- 
dispensable to  good  resonance. 

The  Tonsils  are  two  prominent  bodies  situ- 
ated in  the  back  of  the  throat — one  on  each  side 
between  the  front  and  back  pillars. 

The  Pharynx  lies  behind  the  larynx  and  com- 
municates below  with  the  esophagus  and  above 
with  the  mouth  and  the  nose. 

The  pharynx  has  three  important  functions: 
respiration,  deglutition,  and  phonation.  During 
respiration  the  air  passing  through  the  nose 
travels  down  towards  the  pharynx,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  back  of  the  tongue  approaches  the 
soft  palate ;  but  in  respiration  through  the  mouth 
the  tongue  and  soft  palate  withdraw  from  each 

[92] 


ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  HYGIENE 

other.  In  deglutition,  the  pharynx  helps  the 
swallowing  of  masticated  food.  During  the  pas- 
sage of  the  bolus  of  food  through  the  pharynx, 
the  nasal  cavity  is  closed  by  the  soft  palate,  the 
larynx  is  lifted  upward  and  the  epiglottis  shuts 
the  entrance  to  the  larynx.  The  pharynx,  with 
the  help  of  the  mouth,  is  also  one  of  the  chief 
resonators  for  speech  and  singing. 

The  Naso-Pharynx  is  a  portion  of  the 
pharynx  which  lies  behind  the  nose  and  above  the 
level  of  the  soft  palate.  The  roof  is  dome-shaped 
and  by  its  contour  plays  a  very  important  part  in 
resonance. 

The  Tongue  is  the  chief  organ  of  taste;  it  also 
plays  a  very  active  part  in  singing  and  speaking 
because  of  its  intrinsic  muscles.  Its  tip,  very 
narrow  in  front,  is  free  in  the  mouth  and  rests, 
when  quiet,  against  the  lower  teeth.  The  base  of 
the  tongue  is  connected  with  a  bone  known  as 
the  hyoid,  and  also  with  the  epiglottis  and  soft 
palate  by  the  pillars  situated  in  front  of  the 
tonsils. 

The  Nose  consists  of  two  irregular  cavities 
situated  in  the  center  of  the  face  and  separated 
by  a  wall  known  as  the  septum.  This  dividing 
partition  consists  of  bone  and  cartilage.  The 
nose  is  further  divided  laterally  by  three  small 
bones  into  an  upper  (superior  turbinate),  mid- 

[93] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

die  (middle  turblnate),  and  lower  (inferior  tur- 
binate)  cavity.  The  nasal  fossae  open  behind 
into  the  naso-pharynx. 

The  proper  channel  for  the  admission  of  air 
is  the  nose.  The  use  of  the  mouth  for  this  pur- 
pose is  a  very  pernicious  habit  and  should  be  dis- 
couraged. The  nose  is  not  only  an  organ  of 
smell,  but  it  plays  a  very  important  role  in  res- 
piration. Under  healthy  conditions  the  air  in 
respiration  passes  entirely  through  the  nose. 
This  particular  function  of  the  nose  is  to  warm 
the  air  and  to  filter  out  from  it  dust  and  other 
matter  which  would  cause  any  irritation.  This 
warming  process  is  done  by  the  small  turbinate 
bones  and  by  the  septum.  Mouth  breathing,  a 
very  dangerous  habit,  causes  dryness  of  the 
mouth  and  the  pharynx;  the  covering  or  mucous 
membrane  usually  becomes  congested  and  in- 
flammation is  likely  to  follow.  Mouth  breathing 
may  be  permissible  when  singing  fast  phrases  and 
when  there  is  very  little  time  to  rest,  but  con- 
tinuous mouth  breathing  may  cause  an  inflamma- 
tory condition  of  the  larynx,  and  by  continuity 
may  travel  to  the  eustachian  tubes  and  into  the 
middle  ear,  thereby  affecting  the  hearing.  With- 
out good  hearing  the  controlling  factor  of  cor- 
rect attack  and  good  production  is  lost. 

Besides  the  functions  of  respiration  and  smell, 
[94] 


the  nose  has  another  very  important  office  as  a 
voice-producing  organ.  By  combining  with  the 
nasopharyngeal  cavity,  it  is  the  chief  resonator  or 
sounding  board  of  the  voice.  The  vibrations  set 
up  in  the  dome-shaped  nasopharynx  and  in  the 
nose  produce  the  characteristic  quality  in  one's 
voice.  Any  obstruction  above  the  soft  palate 
causes  an  alteration  in  the  voice.  Many  troubles 
pointing  to  the  larynx  and  pharynx  are  caused 
by  some  disorder  or  obstruction  in  the  nose. 

The  Accessory  Nasal  Cavities  consist  of  the 
maxillary  cavity  (antrum  of  Highmore)  in  the 
upper  jaw;  ethmoidal  cells  in  the  upper  turbinate 
bones;  sphenoidal  sinus  in  the  back  of  the  nose 
and  the  frontal  cavities. 

The  accessory  sinuses  vary  anatomically  in  dif- 
ferent individuals;  some  have  large  cavities  and 
others  very  small  ones.  The  function  of  the  vari- 
ous cells  is  to  help  to  reinforce  the  fundamental 
tones  to  produce  good  quality  or  timbre. 

The  Lungs  are  two  essential  organs  of  res- 
piration contained  in  the  cavity  of  the  chest, 
where  they  are  separated  from  each  other  by  the 
heart  and  large  blood  vessels.  They  are  covered 
by  a  lining  called  the  pleura  which  is  character- 
ized by  its  elasticity  and  lightness.  The  right 
lung  is  the  largest  and  has  three  lobes;  the  left 
has  two  lobes 

[95] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

By  virtue  of  the  inspiratory  movements  the 
air  passes  into  the  lungs.  During  this  act  the 
chest  expands  under  the  influence  of  the  dia- 
phragm and  the  inspiratory  muscles.  In  in- 
spiration all  diameters  of  the  chest  are  increased. 
Expiratory  movements  are  for  the  most  part  pas- 
sive in  their  nature. 

The  Diaphragm  is  the  chief  muscle  of  respira- 
tion and  expulsion.  It  separates  the  chest  from 
the  abdominal  cavity.  When  the  muscular  tissue 
of  this  great  muscle  is  relaxed  it  is  like  a  dome 
with  its  convexity  upward.  When  the  diaphragm 
contracts,  the  muscular  tissue  pulls  down  the 
central  tendon,  and  at  the  same  time  becomes 
itself  less  convex  and  straighter.  This  descent 
of  the  diaphragm  results  in  increasing  the 
capacity  of  the  chest.  It  is  the  chief  muscle  of 
respiration  and  it  is  very  important  that  a  singer 
should  have  control  of  this  muscle. 

The  Ear  is  the  organ  of  hearing  and  consists 
of  three  subdivisions :  (1)  external  ear;  (2)  mid- 
dle ear;  (3)  internal  ear.  The  external  ear  con- 
sists of  the  auricle  and  external  auditory  canal. 
The  function  of  the  auricle  is  to  collect  the  sound 
waves  and  direct  them  through  the  external  canal 
until  they  reach  the  drum;  the  vibrations  in  the 
external  canal  set  up  vibrations  in  the  drum,— 
this  in  turn  sets  in  motion  the  small  bones  of  the 

[96] 


ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  HYGIENE 

middle  ear  which  are  located  here,  and  the  vibra- 
tions are  then  transmitted  to  the  perilymph,  a 
liquid  surrounding  the  internal  ear. 

The  waves  of  the  perilymph  set  up  correspond- 
ing vibrations  in  the  endolymph  which  fills  the 
internal  ear,  and  from  there  they  are  transmitted 
to  the  organ  of  Corti,  or  the  organ  of  hearing, 
and  finally  from  there  they  travel  to  the  brain, 
where  they  are  interpreted  correctly. 

HYGIENE  OF  VOICE 

Although  it  is  well  to  treat  singers  and  public 
speakers,  it  is  better  to  give  certain  rules  or 
advice  for  avoiding  disease  or  trouble  of  any 
kind. 

The  anatomical  and  physiological  relations  be- 
tween the  nose  and  throat  prove  that  hygienic 
measures  suitable  for  one  will  also  be  good  for 
the  other. 

Singing  should  not  be  attempted  during  pe- 
riods of  excitement,  or  after  strenuous  exercises, 
or  during  periods  of  profound  fatigue.  Proper 
concentration  of  the  mind  during  exercises  is  of 
great  importance.  Fear  and  psychic  (mental) 
disturbances  have  a  markedly  detrimental  influ- 
ence on  singing. 

Never  try  to  sing  if  you  do  not  feel  like  sing- 
ing. In  order  to  maintain  a  healthful  equilibrium 

[971 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

in  singers  and  speakers,  food  should  be  taken 
regularly  and  with  discretion.  In  other  words, 
systematize  your  eating.  Too  much  eating 
causes  an  overdevelopment  and  too  much  work 
for  the  digestive  apparatus,  thereby  causing  in 
time  an  enlarged  stomach  and  engorgement  of 
the  liver;  this  in  turn  causes  the  formation  of 
mucus  in  the  throat  due  to  the  back  pressure  on 
the  arterial  system,  and,  when  you  have  an  in- 
creased formation  of  mucus,  the  voice  becomes 
husky  and  many  breaks  occur  during  singing. 
Perfect  digestion  is  as  important  as  correct 
breathing. 

Food  is  material  taken  into  the  body  to  build 
up  its  tissues,  to  repair  waste,  or  to  produce  en- 
ergy. It  is  a  matter  of  common  experience  that 
fear,  worry,  anger,  or  the  reception  of  unex- 
pected news,  either  joyous  or  sorrowful,  will  oft- 
times  seriously  interrupt  gastric  digestion.  Sing- 
ing on  an  empty  or  a  full  stomach  will  cause  a 
suppression  of  motor  activities,  thereby  resulting 
in  a  heavy  feeling  which  has  a  marked  effect  on 
the  respiration  in  singing. 

A  singer  who  attempts  to  sing  or  vocalize  in 
the  morning  before  breakfast  will  invariably  find 
his  voice  husky  or  weak,  or  he  or  she  is  indiffer- 
ent, because  it  stands  to  reason  that,  without  ali- 
mentation, there  is  a  lack  of  stimulation.  The 

[98] 


ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  HYGIENE 

enthusiasm  which  one  should  possess  whenever 
he  sings  is  missing.  In  order  to  be  physically 
and  mentally  strong,  I  advise  that  you  have  your 
breakfast  first,  a  very  light  one,  wait  about  an 
hour  and  then  vocalize.  You  at  once  observe  the 
difference ;  you  are  stimulated,  full  of  ginger  and 
your  enthusiasm  is  with  you. 

Now,  the  full  stomach  presents  a  different 
problem.  The  stomach  is  full,  it  requires  plenty 
of  blood  to  help  digestion,  therefore,  it  is  very 
detrimental  to  sing  immediately  after  eating.  If 
an  individual  should  vocalize  immediately  after, 
the  blood  is  diverted  from  the  stomach,  thus  caus- 
ing indigestion.  It  has  another  effect;  the  res- 
piration cannot  be  proper,  as  the  diaphragm  lies 
right  over  the  stomach  and  its  descent  is  inter- 
fered with.  In  order  that  a  singer  should  cor- 
rectly attack  a  tone  and  his  singing  be  clear  and 
even,  the  diaphragm  must  not  be  hindered  in  its 
downward  movement. 

It  is  indispensable,  and  let  it  be  a  law,  that  a 
singer  should  not  attempt  to  sing  after  a  heavy 
meal  but  wait  until  digestion  has  taken  place, 
which  is  about  two  or  three  hours  after  eating; 
or,  if  one  is  to  perform  at  a  concert,  eat  a  very 
light  lunch  and  postpone  the  heavy  dinner  until 
the  singing  is  over.  Systematize  your  exercises 
and  eat  the  proper  amount  of  food,  and  I  am  sure 

[99] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

that  your  stomach  will  have  no  detrimental  influ- 
ence on  your  singing  or  speaking. 

For  professional  people  or  artists  who  are  not 
engaged  in  physical  labor  and  who  use  principally 
their  mental  energy,  I  have  found  the  following 
system  very  advantageous. 

On  getting  up  in  the  morning,  let  us  say  about 
8  A.  M.,  take  a  cold  shower;  follow  it  by  a 
brisk  rub,  until  the  skin  is  quite  red;  wait  about 
fifteen  minutes  and  then  begin  your  breakfast. 
The  breakfast  should  consist  of  fresh  fruit,  oat- 
meal, or  any  cereal  (change  or  alternate  each 
day),  poached  or  scrambled  eggs,  rolls  or  bread 
and  butter,  light  coffee  or  tea.  Wait  for  an 
hour,  and  then  vocalize  for  fifteen  minutes  or  one- 
half  hour.  Rest,  or  do  any  other  necessary  light 
work  until  dinner-time,  which  should  be  about 
1  P.  M. 

Dinner  should  consist  of  several  courses,  or  in 
other  words,  it  should  be  your  heavy  meal, 
namely,  soup,  fish,  steak  or  white  meat,  in  con- 
junction with  potatoes,  other  vegetables,  salad, 
pudding,  light  coffee  or  tea.  Rest  two  or  three 
hours  and  then  vocalize  for  one-half  hour  or  an 
hour. 

Individuals  who  arise  late  should  partake  of  a 
light  breakfast  and  a  heavy  dinner  or  supper. 
Those  who  eat  a  heavy  meal  at  dinner  should 

[100] 


ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  HYGIENE 

substitute  a  light  one  at  supper-time,  and  vice 
versa.  In  other  words,  one  should  partake  of 
but  one  heavy  meal  a  day. 

Exercise  or  increased  mental  work  demands 
more  food  on  account  of  the  increased  oxidation 
in  the  tissues,  but  any  food  or  drink  which  causes 
distress,  or  even  discomfort  because  of  indiges- 
tion, should  be  avoided  at  all  times.  Also  all 
food  or  drink  is  injurious  which  is  so  hot  that  it 
causes  a  sensation  of  burning,  or  so  cold  that  it 
produces  pain  in  the  teeth. 

Tea  or  Coffee,  if  used  to  excess,  disturbs  the 
digestive  organs  and  produces  nervous  disturb- 
ances, such  as  headache,  trembling  and  wakeful- 
ness  at  night. 

Alcohol  may  be  taken  moderately  in  the  form 
of  light  wines  or  beer,  but  liquors  in  the  form 
of  whisky,  gin,  highballs,  etc.,  should  be  avoided 
entirely.  Alcohol  taken  with  sense  is  a 
food. 

A  man  or  woman  who  is  subject  to  constipa- 
tion should  use  many  vegetables,  fruits  of  all 
kinds,  and  graham  bread,  as  these  have  a  laxa- 
tive effect  on  the  digestive  tract. 

Tobacco  should  be  used  in  moderation.  Con- 
stant use  or  abuse  of  tobacco  causes  an  internal 
congestion  of  the  nose  and  throat,  thereby  caus- 
ing a  good  deal  of  mucus  to  form.  Tobacco  acts 

[101] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

on  the  heart,  memory  and  respiration,  and,  as 
stated  above,  persistent  abuse  makes  itself  known 
to  the  sensitive  mucous  membrane. 

Clothing  should  be  used  for  comfort  and  pro- 
tection. Well-clad  and  well-housed  individuals 
require  less  food  than  poorly  dressed  individuals. 
Clothing  and  food  should  be  regulated  and  prop- 
erly fitted  to  suit  the  climate  and  the  time  of  year. 
Sufficient  clothing  in  cold  weather  conserves  the 
body  heat  and  therefore  less  food  is  required  to 
maintain  good  health.  During  the  winter,  a 
man  or  woman  should  wear  warm  clothes,  heavy 
underwear,  heavy  soled  shoes,  and,  if  it  rains  or 
snows,  rubbers  or  overshoes.  Most  of  the  colds  of 
singers  and  speakers  are  due  to  neglect  on  their 
part  to  keep  their  feet  and  legs  warm.  Clothes 
should  not  be  too  tight  or  snug  on  the  body,  as 
tight  or  snug  clothing  interferes  with  the  rhyth- 
mical actions  of  the  involuntary  muscles.  Ana- 
tomically we  are  so  constructed  or  proportioned 
that  all  involuntary  actions  are  rhythmical;  for 
example,  the  heart,  the  lung  action,  and  the  swing 
of  the  limbs  are  in  relation  to  the  joint  measure- 
ments. 

High  and  tight  collars  should  be  avoided,  as 
they  have  a  tendency  to  constrict  the  blood  ves- 
sels of  the  neck,  and  to  interfere  with  the  free- 
dom of  the  larynx  during  singing. 

[102] 


ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  HYGIENE 

Corsets  have  been  largely  instrumental  in 
changing  the  female  breathing  from  the  correct 
inferior  costal  diaphragmatic  to  the  incorrect  su- 
perior costal  type.  Naturally  there  is  no  respira- 
tory difference  in  male  and  female.  If  you  find 
the  superior  costal  breathing  in  a  female,  you 
will  invariably  find  it  due  to  the  corset.  In  fact, 
if  the  male  chest  were  encased  in  a  corset,  the 
breathing  from  the  inferior  costal  diaphragmatic 
type  would  change  at  once  into  the  superior  cos- 
tal type.  Corsets  have  a  tendency  to  weaken  the 
abdominal  contents  as  found  in  females;  they 
not  only  interfere  with  breathing  but  the  lungs 
fail  to  expand  fully.  In  order  to  obtain  the 
proper  breathing,  the  lower  chest  and  upper  ab- 
dominal walls  must  be  free  to  act. 

Teeth. — Every  man  or  woman  should  make 
it  a  habit  carefully  to  guard  the  health  of  the 
teeth.  It  is  a  known  fact  that  decayed  and  filthy 
teeth  will  cause  indigestion  and  lower  the  resist- 
ance of  an  individual  markedly  Decayed  teeth 
have  produced  a  subacute  and  chronic  catarrhal 
condition  of  the  throat  and  nasal  structure.  It 
is  also  very  unbecoming  for  a  singer  or  speaker 
to  expose  uncleanly  teeth.  The  habit  of  caring 
and  guarding  the  health  of  the  teeth  should  be 
formed  in  early  childhood  and  continued  through- 
out life. 

[103] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

Skin. — Another  important  matter  is  keeping 
the  skin  in  a  healthy  state.  The  skin  is  one  of 
the  great  structures  which  throws  off  waste  mat- 
ter; it  also  helps  the  kidneys  to  cast  off  the  poison- 
ous material  present  in  the  system.  In  order  to 
maintain  a  healthy  skin,  it  behooves  you  to  know 
when  to  take  a  cold  bath  and  when  a  hot  or 
warm  bath.  Warm  bathing  should  be  used 
for  cleansing  purposes.  The  heat  helps  to  open 
the  small  orifices,  commonly  called  the  pores,  in 
the  skin.  Cold  baths  stimulate,  refresh  and  in- 
vigorate the  nervous  system.  If  you  wish  to  pre- 
vent colds,  take  a  cold  shower  or  bath  in  the 
morning;  this  aids  the  skin  to  protect  us  from 
the  cold.  After  a  cold  bath  or  shower,  it  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  rub  the  skin  briskly  until  a 
reaction  takes  place,  that  is,  until  it  becomes  red. 
If  we  do  not  get  this  reaction  the  good  effects  of 
the  bath  are  lost. 

If  it  is  inconvenient  or  impossible  to  take  a  cold 
shower  or  bath,  cold  sponging  of  the  throat  fol- 
lowed by  massage  is  very  beneficial  and  healthful ; 
this  also  helps  to  harden  the  skin  against  colds. 

Ventilation  is  very  important  and  is  indis- 
pensable to  good  health.  Singers  and  speakers 
should  not  stay  in  a  room  where  there  is  not  a  free 
circulation  of  pure  air.  A  stuffy,  badly  venti- 
lated room  causes  a  depressed  feeling  and  pro- 

[104] 


ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  HYGIENE 

duces  a  harsh,  husky  or  very  thin  voice.  It  also 
predisposes  to  many  ailments.  Congestion  of 
the  nose  is  easily  produced  in  a  badly  ventilated 
place,  and,  when  you  suffer  with  a  congestion  of 
the  nasal  structures,  your  resonance  will  suffer. 
Neither  should  you  expose  yourself  to  bad 
weather  nor  stay  out  late  at  night,  as  the  night 
air  is  not  beneficial  to  a  singer.  It  predisposes 
to  hoarseness  and  catarrh.  Foggy  and  smoky 
air  has  the  same  ill  effect. 

Exercise,  as  stated  before,  causes  an  increased 
amount  of  oxidation  in  the  tissues,  therefore  a 
person  demands  more  food.  It  also  helps  to 
steady  the  nervous  system,  and  keep  it  under  con- 
trol. Singers  and  speakers,  as  a  rule,  are  our 
chief  neurotics.  Nervousness  plays  a  salient  role 
in  their  lives.  Music  is  instrumental  in  produc- 
ing such  a  condition.  It  causes  a  marked  effect 
on  the  nervous  system  through  its  varied  vibra- 
tions. Temperament  in  a  singer  or  speaker  is 
but  tributary  to  nervousness.  Temperament  will 
cause  an  increased  reaction,  both  mental  and 
physical,  to  external  impression.  An  overstimu- 
lation  of  the  above  will  cause  an  exhausted  or 
debilitated  condition  of  the  nervous  system;  a 
condition  found  very  frequently  among  singers. 
Most  of  the  singers  possess  an  abundance  of  tem- 
perament characterized  by  mental  force  and  high- 

[105] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

strung  sensibilities,  manifesting  terseness  and 
vigor,  as  an  expression  of  style.  In  other  words, 
temperament  is  a  preponderance  of  the  activity 
of  the  mental  over  the  physical  qualities.  Tem- 
perament is  affected  by  different  conditions,  such 
as  elevation,  temperature,  change  of  climate  and 
altitude  and  environment.  If  singers  can  con- 
trol their  temperament  or  nervousness,  their  sing- 
ing will  be  clear,  but  should  they  lack  power  of 
adaptation,  sudden  nervousness  may  result, 
thereby  causing  straining,  clouding,  muffling  of 
the  voice  and  improper  breathing. 

The  treatment  of  this  neurosis  usually  falls 
upon  the  nose  and  throat  specialist,  and  it  re- 
quires the  greatest  amount  of  care  on  the  physi- 
cian's part  to  cope  with  it.  The  singer's  food, 
sleep,  exercises  and  work  should  be  systemati- 
cally regulated.  Personal  hygiene  is  very  impor- 
tant in  such  subjects.  Their  intellectual  work 
especially  should  be  judiciously  limited,  and 
should  alternate  frequently  with  periods  of  re- 
pose. Excitement  of  all  kinds  should  be  avoided, 
and  such  individuals  will  do  well  to  be  abstemious 
in  the  use  of  tobacco,  coffee  and  tea,  and  espe- 
cially alcohol,  which  primarily  produces  a  stimu- 
lating effect  and  then  rapidly  causes  a  depression. 

The  habit  of  taking  a  prolonged  holiday,  away 
from  the  ordinary  environment,  such  as  a  trip 

[106] 


ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  HYGIENE 

to  the  woods,  the  mountains,  or  the  seashore,  at 
least  twice  a  year  should  be  urgently  insisted 
upon.  Cold  baths  in  the  morning  help  to  harden 
the  nervous  system.  Exercises  in  the  gym- 
nasium, tennis,  rowing,  sailing  are  of  value  in 
maintaining  the  general  nutrition  and  help  the 
nervous  system  a  great  deal  Drugs  should  be 
avoided  as  much  as  possible,  especially  habit- 
forming  ones.  If  the  exercises  during  the  day 
are  systematized  and  the  proper  hygiene  of  health 
observed  singers  or  speakers  will  find  that  their 
neurosis  will  begin  to  disappear  in  a  short  time, 
their  singing  will  improve,  and  confidence  in 
themselves,  a  great  and  very  essential  requisite, 
will  thereby  be  acquired. 

In  concluding  this  chapter,  let  me  say  that  it 
should  be  the  invariable  practice  of  every  singer 
or  speaker  to  spend  at  least  two  or  three  hours 
each  da>  in  the  open  air,  and  as  many  more  as 
possible.  If  the  weather  is  pleasant,  walking  is 
a  valuable  form  of  exercise.  Pleasant,  open-air 
occupations  invigorate  the  muscles,  stimulate  the 
sweat  glands  and  other  execretory  organs, 
strengthen  and  restore  the  nervous  tissues,  clear 
the  brain,  and  increase  the  heart  action,  thereby 
sending  a  greater  supply  of  blood  to  all  parts 
of  the  body,  thus  promoting  digestion  and  as- 
similation of  food. 


PART  II 
ACTING  AND  MIMICRY 


CHAPTER  VI 

INTRODUCTION 

ACTING  AND  MIMICRY 

While  special  sciences  were  early  developed  to 
aid  in  the  analysis  of  facial  expression,  the  inter- 
est in  and  actual  study  of  physiognomy,  ante- 
dates all  written  treatises  on  the  subject.  Man 
has  ever  sought  to  find,  in  the  face  of  his  brother, 
indications  of  his  thought  and  traces  of  the  primi- 
tive emotions, — love,  hate,  joy,  pain,  etc.  So 
mimicry,  born  of  the  eager  attempt  to  read  in  the 
outward  look  signs  of  the  inner  state,  is  as  old  as 
life  itself.  It  is  also  interesting  to  note  that  the 
mimicking  tendency  exists  not  only  in  the  sphere 
of  man,  but  among  the  creatures  of  the  animal 
kingdom  as  well. 

That  our  ancestors  understood  the  importance 
of  mimicry  in  daily  life  is  attested  by  the  fact  that 
Plato,  Cicero,  and  other  great  men  of  the  ancient 
world  embodied  its  study  in  the  education  of  the 
youth  of  the  day.  For  these  early  teachers  no- 
ticed that,  coincident  with  the  growth  and  de- 
velopment of  the  child  body,  is  the  unfolding  of 
the  child  character.  This  dual  growth  affects  the 

[113] 


features,  and  gives  expression  to  the  previously 
unmarked  countenance.  Later  it  is  responsible 
for  the  "changing  look,"  that  indefinable  impress 
of  the  formative  period  always  to  be  observed 
with  the  child's  passing  years.  Del  Sarte  tells 
us  that,  from  the  first  smile,  which  is  the  earliest 
conscious  expression  of  the  child,  there  is  a  won- 
derful scale  in  the  development  of  its  intelligence 
which  leaves  a  permanent  imprint  on  its  face. 

Mimicry,  like  make-up,  took  an  important 
place  in  the  theater  only  when  the  masks  worn  by 
the  actors  of  the  classical  stage  were  abolished. 
As  there  are  certain  indisputably  fundamental 
causes  for  our  attitudes  and  facial  movements, 
the  study  of  mimicry  must  be  based  upon  physi- 
ological and  psychological  principles  which  re- 
veal to  the  student  the  reasons  for  the  rules  gov- 
erning the  above  attitudes  and  expressions.  It 
is  to  be  regretted,  however,  that,  although  the 
world's  literature  abounds  in  scientific  works 
upon  the  matter,  those  furnishing  an  exposition 
of  these  principles  and  rules  as  applied  to  the  art 
of  the  theater  are  few  and  of  doubtful  value. 

The  works  of  Piderit,  Kowalewski,  Engel, 
Keller  and  others  can  be  considered  only  timid 
essays,  feeling  their  way  into  the  vast  field  of  the 
relationship  between  mimicry  and  the  art  of  the 
stage.  Yet  they  approach  the  nearest  to  being 

[114] 


ACTING  AND  MIMICRY 

"a  complete  work  guide"  to  the  dramatic  and 
vocal  art.  For  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
difference  between  the  speaking  stage  and  the 
singing  stage  is  insignificant,  because  the  op- 
eratic singer  has  to  pay  just  as  much  attention 
to  his  dramatic  expression  and  acting  as  does  the 
actor. 

We  live  in  an  age  of  the  complete  develop- 
ment of  theatrical  art  and,  along  with  this 
progress  in  the  machinery  of  the  modern  theater, 
the  operatic  composer's  art  has  advanced ;  he  who 
will  conceive  a  mighty  operatic  theme  tries  to  be 
true  to  nature.  Therefore,  the  sincere  interpreta- 
tion of  an  opera  demands  that  mimicry  and  act- 
ing be  considered  as  important  as  the  quality  and 
exercise  of  the  performer's  voice;  in  fact,  these 
two,  dramatic  expression  and  voice,  form  a  vital 
unit.  In  the  singing  of  an  opera,  gesture  and 
vocal  art  must  be  as  truly  related  as  the  parts 
of  a  symphony;  to  have  voice  and  gesture  un- 
related is  like  playing  in  different  keys — the  re- 
sult is  inevitable  discord.  For  an  awkward  ac- 
tion, or  one  which  is  unsuited  to  the  passions  and 
words  produces  an  inharmonious  ensemble  as 
painful  to  the  eye  as  is  discord  to  the  ear.  But 
when  these  two  media  of  expression — voice  and 
mimicry — work  in  harmony,  the  result  is  per- 
fect and  gratifying  success. 

[115] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

WHAT  IS  MIMICRY? 

Language  is  the  expression  of  thought  and  the 
emotions  of  the  soul  by  words ;  mimicry  is  the  ex- 
pression of  thought  and  these  emotions  by  ges- 
ture and  facial  movements.  If  the  language  of 
words  is  universal,  the  language  of  mimicry  is 
none  the  less  so.  For,  no  matter  how  diverse  may 
be  the  tongues  of  the  nations,  their  peoples  may 
yet  meet  upon  the  common  ground  of  gesture 
and  the  interpreting  play  of  the  features.  In 
every-day  life  we  know  the  importance  of  sign 
language  to  be  such  as  often  to  take  the  place  of 
words;  as  an  instance  of  which  we  may  cite  the 
case  of  those  unfortunates,  the  deaf  mutes ;  while 
to  glean  an  idea  of  its  power  on  the  stage,  we  need 
only  call  to  the  reader's  attention  the  eloquence 
of  the  pantomime,  the  ballet  and  the  silent  drama 
of  the  screen.  To  recapitulate,  then,  mimicry  is 
an  art  in  which  the  body  or  its  parts  are  engaged, 
and  its  duties  are  to  complete,  or  substitute  for, 
language.  In  order  to  determine  the  essential 
characteristics  of  stage  mimicry,  the  study  of 
poses,  of  "facial  acting,"  and  of  general  attitude 
is  vital. 

ACTING— OPERA  AND  STAGE 

Somehow  or  other,   there  is   current  among 
[116] 


ACTING  AND  MIMICRY 

vocal  students,  and  even  among  finished  singers, 
an  unjustified  notion  that  acting  on  the  singing 
stage  is  entirely  different  from  acting  on  the 
speaking  stage.  This  is  a  fallacy. 

The  singers  who  are  guided  by  this  false  theory 
art  the  ones  who,  as  Rasi  claims,  are  poor  actors. 
They  have  formed  their  ideas  from  the  photo- 
graphs and  paintings  of  1850.  So  we  have  the 
tenors  who,  when  singing  the  aria  from  Rigoletto, 
for  instance,  will  insist  upon  drawing  on  and  toy- 
ing with  the  unavoidable  glove,  thinking,  per- 
haps, that  by  so  doing  they  are  impressing  the 
audience  with  their  artistry.  Or  there  are  the 
sopranos  who,  while  singing,  never  omit  to  dis- 
play the  inevitable  handkerchief  which  they 
crumple  and  uncrumple  in  their  nervous  grasp. 
Again,  there  are  those  who  seem  to  be  counting 
their  steps  as  they  advance  towards  the  foot- 
lights in  preparation  for  a  cadenza. 

The  principal  reason  for  poor  acting  in  opera 
is  the  lack  of  understanding  of  the  part  played. 
Experience  has  shown  that  when  a  singer  thor- 
oughly understands  his  part,  he  is  convincing, 
dramatically.  This  was  proved  in  the  case  of 
Tamagno — one  of  the  greatest  dramatic  tenors 
of  not  long  ago.  Verdi  and  Boito,  after  having 
written  Othello  for  him,  were  greatly  perturbed, 
for  he  seemed  unable  to  enter  into  the  spirit  of 

[117] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

the  part.  They  then  worked  with  him  for  months 
until  he  grasped  thoroughly  the  thought  under- 
Iving  the  role  he  was  to  sing.  The  performance, 
as  a  result  of  this  painstaking  study,  was  the 
greatest  triumph  Tamagno  ever  had;  his  act- 
ing was  called  consummate  on  this  occasion, 
for  he  showed  by  his  intelligent  interpretation 
that  the  "acting  talent"  had  been  awakened  in 
him. 

In  opera,  of  course,  the  musical  requirements 
of  the  passage  being  sung  must  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration. The  gesture  or  pose  sometimes  is 
longer,  sometimes  shorter,  than  on  the  speaking 
stage,  for  it  is  dependent  upon  the  melody  and 
music. 

From  the  acting  point  of  view,  modern  opera 
offers  many  more  opportunities  than  classical 
opera.  Classical  opera,  as  it  has  come  down  to 
us,  is  full  of  conventional  traditions  which  must 
be  observed.  In  it,  often  many  bars  are  sung  on 
the  same  word,  and  therefore  the  gesture  must  be 
prolonged  accordingly. 

To  correspond  with  the  repetition  of  words— 
a  favorite  device  in  old  opera — it  is  advisable  to 
find  a  variety  of  gestures.  These  the  singer  must 
create  for  himself,  as  his  own  thought  and  in- 
stinct should  be  a  better  guide  than  any  hard-and- 
fast  rules  which  might  be  given.  Modern  opera 

[118] 


ACTING  AND  MIMICRY 

is  free  from  this  conventionalism,  so  that  the 
singer  can  display  his  histrionic  talents  with 
greater  freedom. 

As  the  librettos  of  operas  are  either  dramatic, 
tragic,  or  comic,  the  acting  of  the  whole  is  thus 
naturally  dependent  upon  the  subject-matter 
therein  contained.  In  comedy,  the  action  should 
be  lively  and  move  quickly,  the  gesture  should 
be  free,  spontaneous  and  agile.  In  tragedy  or 
drama,  in  which  the  destructive  forces  are  nearly 
always  represented  as  defeating  the  constructive 
ones,  the  gestures  must  be  more  sustained. 

HOW  TO  STUDY  AND  ANALYZE  A  PART 

The  student  must  read  and  analyze  carefully 
not  only  his  role,  but  the  entire  libretto  as  well. 
Then  the  text  of  his  role  or  of  the  song  must  be 
properly  thought  out  and  understood.  As  the 
librettos  of  operas  are  nearly  always  taken  from 
romances,  novels  or  classics,  I  consider  it  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  know  the  masterpiece  upon 
which  the  operatic  libretto  is  based.  For  in- 
stance, if  one  is  preparing  Faust,  or  Othello,  or 
Romeo  and  Juliet,  he  should  read  the  original  of 
Goethe  or  Shakespeare,  and  earnestly  study  the 
relation  of  the  character  in  question  to  the  whole 
novel  or  play.  Then,  only,  should  the  study  of 
the  musical  end  of  the  part  be  started. 

[119] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

When  preparing  mimicry  with  a  view  to  por- 
traying the  character  of  a  personage,  the  singer 
or  actor  should  consider  the  following  character- 
istics of  the  body,  and  especially  those  of  the 
face: 

First,  should  come  a  physiological  analysis  of 
the  personage  in  the  role  to  be  performed,  also 
state  of  health. 

Second,  the  aesthetic  analysis  of  beauty  and 
ugliness  should  follow.  These  physical  extremes 
are  represented,  for  instance,  by  Romeo  and  by 
the  rag-picker  in  "Louise,"  or  by  Fiora  in  the 
"Love  of  Three  Kings,"  and  the  Witch  in  "Han- 
sel und  Gretel." 

Third,  is  the  analysis  of  character  and  moral 
qualities.  How  different  are  the  dark  characters 
of  Scarpia  in  "Tosca,"  or  of  Silva  in  "Ernani," 
from  the  noble  character  of  Wilhelm  in  "Mig- 
non."  Also,  note  the  difference  between  Carmen 
and  Micaela. 

Fourth,  is  the  study  of  the  intellectual  develop- 
ment and  social  standing  of  the  character,  as  in 
the  case  of  Faust  or  Canio,  in  "Pagliacci." 

Fifth,  comes  the  analysis  of  the  race,  or  the 
study  of  racial  characteristics  induced  by  racial 
psychology  and  mode  of  living.  For  instance, 
the  bodily  attitude,  manner  of  walking,  pecul- 
iarities of  speech  and  accent  of  Madam  Butter- 

[120] 


ACTING  AND  MIMICRY 

fly,  or  of  Aida,  will  be  different  from  the  same 
habits  in  personages  of  the  white  race. 

Sixth,  there  is  age  to  be  considered;  and  sev- 
enth, sex.  The  eighth  point  is  the  profession 
or  the  trade  and  its  influence  on  habit. 

Physiological  Analysis  (State  of  Health). — 
Mimi  in  "Boheme,"  when  she  enters  Rudolph's 
room  to  ask  for  a  light,  is  in  the  early  stages 
of  consumption.  Her  attitude  is  normal,  the 
only  indication  of  the  disease  being  the  slight, 
unnatural  redness  on  her  chin.  This  is  a  sign 
of  a  feverish  condition.  In  the  third  act,  she 
is  very  sick;  she  is  pale  and  is  coughing.  In 
the  last  act,  the  climax  is  near;  consumption 
has  partly  destroyed  the  body;  the  agony  is 
coming.  So,  in  the  role  of  Mimi  throughout 
the  whole  opera,  there  is  a  notable  advance  in 
her  illness.  This  crescendo  must  be  observed 
when  studying  the  part, — the  singer's  make- 
up, attitude  and  voice  must  be  prepared  accord- 
ingly. 

Take  another  example:  Lothario  in  "Mignon" 
loses  his  reason  after  the  kidnaping  of  his 
daughter  Sperata.  His  mind  continues  to  wan- 
der with  varying  degrees  of  sanity  until,  in  the 
last  act,  when,  recognizing  the  Cipriani  Palace, 
a  strange  feeling  lights  up  within  him  that 
Mignon  is  his  daughter.  He  then  regains  his 

[121] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

reason.  This  scene  offers  an  unlimited  amount 
of  artistic  possibilities  to  the  observing  artist. 

Monotony  in  the  portrayal  of  the  progressive 
stages  of  pathological  conditions  can  be  avoided 
by  a  serious  analysis  of  the  effects  of  a  certain 
sickness  on  the  general  health  at  the  time  under 
consideration. 

^Esthetic  Analysis. — In  creating  a  handsome 
or  an  ugly  type,  naturally,  the  make-up  is  the 
first  consideration.  But  mimicry  may  render 
very  great  service.  Exaggerating,  for  instance, 
or  diminishing  or  prolonging  the  expression  of 
low  or  of  high  spirits,  will  give  the  necessary 
imprint  to  the  face. 

In  general,  the  acting  and  mimicry  of  ugly 
types,  with  very  few  exceptions,  will  be  similar 
to  the  mimicry  of  the  lower,  or  intellectually  un- 
developed classes. 

Character. — Pathologists  have  accepted  the 
divisions  Hippocrates  has  made  of  the  human 
temperament  and  humors.  They  are  the  nerv- 
ous, sanguine,  bilious,  phlegmatic,  and  lym- 
phatic. Inasmuch  as  each  one  of  these  tempera- 
ments, if  very  strongly  accentuated,  is  full  of 
peculiar  characteristics,  it  would  be  inadequate 
to  confine  them  within  any  dogmatic  set  of  rules 
and  advices,  for  they  seldom  appear  as  simple 
affections  but  are  almost  always  complex,  pass- 

[122] 


ACTING  AND  MIMICRY 

ing  and  shading,  the  one  into  the  other  with  an 
infinite  delicacy  of  gradation  which  has  afforded 
pathologists  ample  material  for  the  writing  of 
numberless  books  on  the  subject.  Therefore,  in 
the  preparation  of  theatrical  roles,  I  advise  a 
study  of  the  personage's  temperament  and  char- 
acter from  a  consideration  of  his  external  habits 
and  characteristics  rather  than  from  a  too  close 
scrutiny  of  the  internal  conditions  and  consti- 
tution. 

Intellectual  Analysis. — From  a  few  gestures, 
from  the  walk,  salutation,  manner  of  being 
seated,  or  from  an  expression  of  satisfaction  or 
disappointment,  we  are  able  to  judge  the  degree 
of  a  person's  education.  The  higher  the  educa- 
tion, the  greater  the  reserve  in  manner.  The 
passions  seem  to  be  well  controlled;  for  educa- 
tion teaches  self-control,  suppressing  the  ex- 
pression of  low  spirits,  and  heightening  that  of 
high  spirits.  An  uneducated  man  betrays  his 
feelings;  an  educated  man  always  acts  with  re- 
serve. Different  kinds  of  training  will  impose 
different  manners:  a  military  education,  for 
instance,  suggests  a  mimicry  and  an  action  en- 
tirely different  from  education  in  a  convent,  etc. 

Race. — Mantegazza  thus  divides  nationalities 
according  to  their  power  of  expression:  agricul- 
tural nations  have  little  expansive  mimicry; 

[123] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

commercial  or  traveling  nations  have  the  facial 
muscles  flexible,  consequently,  their  power  of 
expression  is  developed  to  the  utmost;  nations 
with  righting  spirits  have  heavy,  ferocious,  un- 
smiling mimicry;  expression  in  the  oriental  na- 
tions is  very  quiet,  because  they  are,  above  all 
others,  fatalists.  However,  their  characteristic 
inscrutability  is  also  induced  by  the  use  of  drugs, 
such  as  opium,  morphine,  etc.,  for  these  have  a 
depressing  effect  upon  the  temperaments  and 
facial  expression,  so  that  the  mimicry  of  the  lat- 
ter is  rightly  characterized  by  apathy. 

The  use  of  coffee  and  tea  has  rather  the  con- 
trary, or  exciting  effects.  The  mimicry  of  per- 
sons addicted  to  their  use  should,  therefore,  be 
more  lively. 

But  to  analyze  in  detail  the  peculiarities  of 
expression  among  nations  is  outside  the  scope  of 
this  book.  In  Italy  alone  nearly  every  province 
has  its  own  dialect  and  mimicry.  It  would  take 
volumes  to  describe  all  the  gestures  of  the  Nea- 
politans, so  we  may  say  that  their  mimicry  is 
characterized  by  gestures.  The  "Piedmontese," 
and,  to  some  extent,  the  "Milanese"  have  a 
mimicry  similar  to  the  French.  The  inhabitants 
of  Cagliari  have  a  mimicry  similar  to  the  Spanish, 
for  the  provinces  were  historically  associated. 
The  "Roman"  is  aristocratic,  while  the  "Tus- 

[124] 


ACTING  AND  MIMICRY 

canian"  is  diffident  and  very  reserved,  which, 
according  to  Mantegazza,  is  the  result  of  periods 
of  oppression  in  Italy.  The  mimicry  of  the 
French  is  quick  and  gay;  of  the  English,  stiff 
and  superb;  of  the  Germans,  heavy,  sluggish, 
lacking  in  plasticity.  The  mimicry  of  the 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  is  full  of  dignity  and 
restraint.  Some  Slavic  nations  do  not  look  one 
in  the  face,  but  have  a  shifting,  restless  eye ;  their 
mimicry  should,  therefore,  convey  the  impres- 
sion of  that  which  is  false,  untrue.  Other  Slavs 
are  frank,  generous,  hospitable,  and  capable  of 
undying  friendship.  The  oppression  of  the  Jews 
has  created  well-known  peculiarities  in  their 
psychology, — their  mimicry  is  humble,  diffident, 
and  suspicious.  The  Swedes  have  heavy  and 
ungraceful  gestures,  as  have  some  of  the  Nor- 
wegians, although  some  among  the  latter  are 
gay,  boisterous  and  lively.  The  mimicry  of  the 
red  Indian  is  full  of  suspicion, — at  some  mo- 
ments full  of  dignity,  at  others  full  of  meek- 
ness. The  mimicry  of  the  negro  does  not  call 
for  richness  or  variety  of  expression.  The  ex- 
pression of  the  yellow  races  is  apathetic.  Still 
it  must  be  said  that  mimicry  of  characters  of  the 
yellow  and  oriental  races,  to  which  we  have  been 
accustomed,  has  not  been  a  true  delineation,  but 
rather  adapted  to  our  ideas  of  what  these  peo- 

[125] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

pies  are.  The  mimicry  of  an  American,  as  far 
as  I  can  analyze,  is  agile,  graceful,  noble,  full 
of  poise. 

Age. — As  an  infant  is  unrestrained  by  intel- 
lectual ideas  or  educational  influences,  he  has  a 
mimicry,  which,  while  intense,  is,  at  the  same 
time,  expressively  poor.  As  intelligence  grows 
with  age,  the  expressive  faculty  matures,  so  that 
the  child  comes  to  express  love  or  hate,  irony 
or  suspicion,  etc.  Mantegazza  calls  this  the 
period  of  transition.  In  the  lower  races,  and  in 
the  case  of  subnormals,  this  transition  stage 
endures. 

Youth  is  characterized  by  richness  and  variety 
of  expression,  modified  by  education,  continuous 
intellectual  development,  and  will  power.  With 
continued  intellectual  development,  the  richness 
of  mimicry  gradually  diminishes,  as  the  expres- 
sion of  passions  is  controlled  by  education,  and 
the  circumstances  and  necessities  of  life.  As  the 
old  are  no  longer  so  susceptible  to  passing  emo- 
tions, their  mimicry  is  even  less  marked  by 
variety  and  richness  of  expression. 

Sex — The  Difference  in  Expression  between 
a  Man  and  a  Woman. — The  mimicry  of  a  woman 
is  much  less  energetic  than  that  of  a  man,  for 
sex  has  a  great  influence  on  the  expressive 
faculty.  As  a  man  develops  strength  of  com- 

[126] 


ACTING  AND  MIMICRY 

mand,  energy  and  will  power,  so  a  woman's 
mimicry  is  rich  in  affection  and  painful  emo- 
tions. The  expression  of  violent  emotions  which 
produce  wrinkles  and  therefore  make  the  face 
ugly  is  seldom  given  to  women;  dark  characters 
and  low  spirits  are,  as  a  rule,  given  to  men  on 
the  stage.  Women  mostly  enact  the  role  of 
victims,  because  in  life  woman  is  subjected  to 
more  moral  and  physical  pain  than  man. 

A  man,  in  portraying  pain,  swells  his  neck, 
bites  his  lips  and  clenches  his  fists,  because  he 
tries  to  control  his  emotion.  A  woman  cries  and 
beseeches  instead.  Thus  it  may  be  seen  that  there 
are  greater  possibilities  for  mimicry  in  the  case 
of  a  man  than  in  that  of  a  woman. 

Profession ;  Trade. — Profession  influences 
habit.  Therefore,  it  is  necessary  to  study  care- 
fully the  profession  of  the  character  being 
enacted  in  order  to  give  a  realistic  portrayal. 
As  we  all  know,  a  seaman  is  easily  recognized 
by  his  gait,  or  a  soldier  by  his  military  bearing 
even  in  civilian  clothes,  but  civilian  clothes  will 
hardly  camouflage  the  habits  of  a  priest. 

After  detailed  analysis  of  the  play  and  the 
role  to  be  performed,  the  singer  should,  by  the 
aid  of  his  thought  steeped  in  imagination,  create 
for  himself  the  type  which  he  is  to  portray.  As 

[127] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

in  the  case  of  the  voice,  where  colorful  interpre- 
tation is  needed,  the  actor  must  visualize  the 
character,  mimicry,  and  attitude  of  the  person- 
age whom  he  will  portray  from  the  image  in  his 
mind.  There  is  the  same  process  of  creation  as 
in  the  writing  of  poetry  or  inspired  prose. 

In  the  classical  opera,  where  tradition  and  the 
music  impose  certain  details,  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  consult  the  stage  manager  before 
beginning  work  on  the  part. 

GENERAL  RULES 

1.  We  will  first  take  up  action  and  counter 
action. 

Motion  on  the  stage  consists  of  the  actor's 
actions  as  they  have  to  do  with  the  playing  of 
his  own  part,  and  counter  action  consists  of  these 
actions  as  they  have  to  do  with,  or  bear  upon, 
the  parts  played  by  his  fellow  actors.  So,  lis- 
tening or  observing  will  be  a  counter  action,  but 
a  prayer  or  a  command  will  be  a  direct  action. 
Singing  an  aria  is  an  action,  but  a  duet  consists 
of  action  and  counter  action,  as  does  any  role 
in  which  more  than  one  person  is  engaged. 

2.  On  the  singing  stage,   the  mimicry  com- 
pletes and  accompanies  the  emotions  and  feelings 
expressed  by  the  voice.     Naturally,  then,  syn- 
chronism in  these  two  actions  must  exist,  as  must 

[128] 


also  perfect  harmony  between  the  tone  of  the 
voice,  the  gesture,  the  poise,  and  the  mimicry. 
In  opera,  the  gesture  may  often  anticipate  the 
word  sung,  but  it  never  should  spring  out  after 
the  note  or  word  is  started.  In  such  case,  it  is 
better  to  remain  passive,  with  no  attempt  at  ges- 
ture, than  to  apply  one  which  may  be  contrary 
in  meaning  to  the  word  sung. 

3.  The  countenance,  mimicry,  gesture,  pose, 
voice,    should   have   their   share   of   expression ; 
monotony  must  be  avoided.    In  laughing  or  cry- 
ing, in  anger  or  in  admiration,  there  is  a  con- 
tinual development  of,  or  a  decline  in,  emotion 
which  influences  the  mimicry.    It  may  be  called 
the  crescendo  and  diminuendo  of  expression  and 
should  be  carefully  studied. 

4.  Gestures,  in  order  to  be  effective,  must  not 
be  too  frequent.     They  should  never  be  made 
unless   impelled   by  the   emotions,   which   must 
guide  the  gesture. 

5.  The  musical  pauses  must  be  as  expressive 
as  the  words  sung.    An  inexpressive  pause  may 
sometimes  ruin  the  whole  dramatic  effect. 

6.  The  gesture,  in  an  operatic  phrase,  finishes 
at  the  musical  end  of  the  phrase ;  or,  more  often, 
it  should   finish   at  the  very  moment  that  the 
expression  which  was  animating  the  phrase  is 
finished.      Remember    that    acting    in    comedy 

[129] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

(comic  opera)  must  be  full  of  activity,  spon- 
taneity and  agility;  in  tragedy  and  drama  (grand 
opera),  full  of  dignity,  etc. 

7.  From  his  entrance  on  the  stage  until  the 
moment  he  leaves  it,  the  actor  must  live  his  part. 
He  must  be  in  every  respect  that  which  he  is 
representing.     When   his    own   action   finishes, 
then  begins  the  counter  action. 

8.  A  singer  or  actor  should  never  speak  on 
the  stage  unless  the  action  requires  it.    By  doing 
so  he  shows  lack  of  respect  towards  the  audience 
and  lack  of  artistic  conscience. 

9.  Never,  during  counter  action,  where  one's 
attention  should  be  concentrated  on  the  acting 
of  others  and  an  interest  shown  in  what  they  do 
or  say,  should  a  singer  look  around  the  scene. 
This  destroys  the  whole  effect. 

10.  In  the  past  it  was  considered  bad  form 
for  an  actor  to  turn  his  back  to  the  audience. 
Observance  of  this  custom  often  injures  the  gen- 
eral effect  and  such  prejudice  no  longer  ham- 
pers an  actor.     A  singer,  however,  should  not 
forget  that  his  voice  must  always  be  thrown  out 
towards  the  audience,   and  from  this  point  of 
view  he  should  avoid  as  much  as  possible,  sing- 
ing with  his  back  to  the  public. 

11.  Vary  positions  and  poses  with  nice  dis- 
crimination.    Thus  you  will  avoid  monotony. 

[130] 


ACTING  AND  MIMICRY 

12.  Except  for  colloquial   purposes,   do   not 
stand  squarely  with  both  shoulders  straight  out 
towards  the  audience;  a  pose  a  little  sideways  is 
more  effective. 

13.  When  facing  the  audience,  stand  with  the 
body  slightly  inclined  to  the  right  to  make  the 
gestures  with  the  left  hand,  and  vice  versa.    This 
will  insure  the  plasticity  of  the  pose  and  take 
away  all  danger  of  the  singer's  covering  his  head 
with  his  hands. 

14.  In  kneeling,  the  knee  touching  the  floor 
should  be  nearest  the  audience. 

15.  Avoid  all   exaggeration.     By  overdoing 
your  part,  you  lose  naturalness.    However,  you 
should  avoid  rigidity  on  the  stage. 

16.  When  singing  an  aria  which  finishes  with 
a  high  note,  like  the  Jewel  song  in   "Faust," 
do   not   bow   to    the    audience   when    finishing. 
It    looks    like    a    bid    for    applause    and    often 
obtains  just  the  contrary  result.     When  a  bow 
is  called  for,  make  it  by  inclining  a  little  to  the 
side. 

17.  Never    put    off    details    of    acting    and 
mimicry  till  the  time  of  performance.    Try  them 
all  out  at  rehearsals — everything  from  the  exer- 
cising of  the  voice  to  the  smallest  movement  of 
hand  or  foot,  or  the  least  detail  of  facial  expres- 
sion.    Only  in  this  way  can  an  actor,  and  espe- 

[131] 


FIG.  17. — Elementary  dancing  exercises  for  gaining  elasticity  in 
movements. 

[132] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

cially  one  at  the  beginning  of  his  career,  hope 
to  give  a  finished  performance. 

18.  Individuality  in  acting  is  of  the  same  im- 
portance as  in  singing.    Imitating  will  give  poor 
results.     Prepare  your  part  from  life's  studies 
and  create  accordingly.     It  may  be  difficult  at 
first,  but  in  the  end  the  singer  must  be  successful. 

19.  A  sure  way  to  make  poor  gestures  is  to 
think  too  much  about  them.     The  gesture  must 
come  from  within  and  be  commanded  by  the 
emotion  which  permeates  the  part.     Only  then 
will     it    be     spontaneous,     and,     consequently, 
natural. 

20.  In  intellectual  expressions,  gesture  should 
be  limited.    Here  the  mimicry  of  the  face  is  the 
most  important. 

21.  The  attitude  of  a  concert  singer  must  be  as 
natural  as  possible  when  on  the  platform.    Any 
stiffness  or  lifelessness  in  the  appearance  must 
be  avoided,  as  they  are  a  great  handicap  to  the 
singer.     The  body  should  be  held  erect,  resting 
easily  in  its  position;  the  limbs  must  not  show 
any  heaviness,  but  must  give  evidence  of  power, 
allowing  the  body  to  rest  on  one  foot. 

The  best  attitude  for  the  hands  is  to  hold  a 
rolled  sheet  of  music  in  them,  but  as  a  singer 
should  always  memorize  his  selections,  he  should 
avoid  looking  at  it.  Hand  gestures  in  concert 

[133] 


ACTING  AND  MIMICRY 

singing  are  not  permitted,  but  the  face  and  the 
voice  must  be  very  expressive. 

Enter  the  concert  platform  with  a  gracious, 
easy  walk.  A  man  should  bow  with  cordiality 
and  dignity.  A  lady  should  bow  more  freely. 

EXERCISES  FOR  ELASTICITY 

All  heaviness  and  stiffness  must  be  avoided  in 
poses  in  walking,  in  seating  and  in  other  ges- 
tures. A  study  of  the  fundamental  rules  of 
dancing  will  be  helpful  to  the  aspirant.  But  the 
ballet  teacher  should  be  carefully  selected,  as  it 
is  of  the  highest  importance  that  no  fox  trot  or 
ragtime  movements  be  incorporated  in  the  prin- 
ciples of  opera  acting.  It  goes  without  saying, 
then,  that  a  man  with  stage  experience  is  pref- 
erable. 

The  few  illustrations  below  will  serve  to  show 
the  parts  of  the  body  to  be  brought  into  play  in 
developing  the  agility  and  elasticity  required  in 
an  actor.  They  will  prove  helpful  exercises  to- 
ward this  end  if  faithfully  practiced.  Each  exer- 
cise should  be  repeated  from  ten  to  twenty  times, 
the  singer  persevering,  in  spite  of  the  sore  mus- 
cles and  consequent  aches  and  pains  incident  to 
the  first  attempts. 


CHAPTER  VII 

ELEMENTS    OF   MIMICRY 

The  elements  of  acting  and  mimicry  at  the 
disposal  of  an  actor  or  singer,  are,  first  of  all, 
motions  or  gestures.  These  gestures  engage  the 
whole  body  or  parts  of  it,  and  create  the  lan- 
guage of  mimicry. 

A  gesture  must  be  natural,  spontaneous  and 
free.  That  operatic  debutants  often  find  more 
difficulties  in  the  gestures  and  acting  than  in  the 
vocal  expression  of  their  role  is  because  they  con- 
centrate all  their  thought  on  gestures,  trying 
too  hard  to  be  graceful,  thereby  obtaining  just 
the  contrary  effect,  sometimes  even  rendering 
themselves  ridiculous,  by  creating  many  un- 
happy positions.  For  example,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  voice,  concentration  on  one  detail  often 
destroys  the  harmony  and  effect  of  the  whole. 
To  have  natural,  spontaneous  and  free  gestures, 
it  is  necessary  to  live  the  part,  or,  at  least,  to 
awaken  within  oneself  an  instinct  which  will 
guide  the  gesture.  It  is  this  instinct,  in  great 
part,  which  has  produced  the  world's  artists ;  for, 
in  reality,  it  is  talent, — genius.  Like  the  voice, 

[135] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

it  cannot  be  manufactured  at  command.     It  is 
a  sublime  gift  of  nature. 
Motions  Are  Divided  Into: 

a.  Instinctive,   or  those  produced  by  sensa- 
tions and  emotions.     These  consist  mostly 
of  motions  whereby  the  facial  muscles  are 
brought   into   play,    sometimes   as   in   the 
movements  of  self-defense  of  the  body  or 
parts  thereof. 

b.  Indicative  and  descriptive,  or  those  used 
to   point   out   a   certain   person,   place   or 
thing.     These   are   motions   made  mostly 
with  the  hands.     Often  a  nod  of  the  head 
or  an  attitude  of  the  body  conveys  the  same 
expression. 

C.  Active  motions  and  gestures,  or  those 
necessary  in  daily  life,  such  as  walking, 
eating,  being  seated,  etc.,  are  motions  in 
which  the  whole  or  parts  of  the  body  are 
engaged. 

d.  Characteristic,  or  those  describing  charac- 
ter, state  of  health,  habits,  etc.,  are  mo- 
tions which  may  also  be  brought  into  play 
either  by  the  whole  or  parts  of  the  body. 

e.  Additional    gestures    are    motions    which 
serve    to    complete    the    principal    ones, 
thereby    helping    to    gain    plasticity    and 
harmony. 

[136] 


ELEMENTS  OF  MIMICRY 

Let  us  now  analyze,  separately,  the  gestures 
of  the  different  parts  of  the  body. 

THE  HEAD 

The  movements  of  the  head  are  of  vital  impor- 
tance in  mimicry. 

By  holding  the  head  straight,  attention  and 
calmness  are  indicated. 

By  allowing  the  head  to  droop,  shame  and 
grief  are  shown. 

By  holding  the  head  erect,  or  slightly  raised, 
pride  and  courage  are  depicted. 

Nodding  the  head  vertically  denotes  ap- 
proval. 

Shaking  the  head  laterally  signifies  dissent. 

The  head  slightly  inclined  indicates  dislike  or 
horror. 

The  bending  forward  of  the  head  indicates 
affection,  attention. 

By  throwing  the  head  back,  arrogance  and 
defiance  are  indicated. 

By  inclining  the  head  to  one  side,  indolence  is 
shown;  slightly  raising  it  denotes  coquetry. 

The  head  is  held  erect  and  stiff  to  indicate 
savagery,  physical  strength  and  tragic  mo- 
ments. 

By  allowing  the  head  to  fall  back,  weakness, 
fainting  and  pain  are  indicated. 

[137] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

THE  FOREHEAD  AND  EYEBROWS 

The  forehead  gives  the  best  indication  of  one's 
intelligence  and  intellectual  development.  Bell 
calls  it  "the  seat  of  thought,  a  tablet  where  every 
emotion  is  distinctly  impressed."  In  the  fore- 
head the  most  active,  independent,  and  associated 
muscles  are  located,  controlling  attention,  doubt, 
reflection,  pain,  etc 

The  disposition  of  the  forehead  wrinkles  pre- 
sents an  inexhaustible  study  for  physiogno- 
mists, and  offers  unlimited  opportunities  to  the 
actor. 

In  Joy,  the  forehead  is  serene,  the  eyebrows 
are  not  contracted. 

In  Attention,  the  eyebrows  approach  the  sides 
of  the  nose. 

In  Admiration,  the  eyebrows  are  raised,  the 
forehead  is  slightly  wrinkled. 

In  Astonishment  and  Surprise,  the  movements 
are  the  same  as  in  admiration,  only  more  strongly 
marked — exaggerated. 

In  Veneration,  the  eyebrows  droop. 

In  Hope,  the  forehead  is  slightly  wrinkled,  the 
eyebrows  are  raised. 

In  Compassion,  the  forehead  is  calm,  the  eye- 
brows sink  over  the  eyes  as  in  sorrow,  towards 
the  middle  of  the  face. 

[1381 


ELEMENTS  OF  MIMICRY 

In  Envy,  the  forehead  is  intersected  with 
many  lines,  the  eyebrows  are  lowered. 

In  Despair,  the  eyebrows  descend,  the  fore- 
head is  wrinkled. 

In  Rapture,  the  eyebrows  and  the  forehead 
are  raised. 

In  Acute  Pain,  mental  or  physical,  lines  inter- 
sect the  forehead,  the  eyebrows  are  drawn  near 
to  each  other  over  the  nose,  but  are  raised  to- 
wards the  middle. 

In  Simple  Pain,  we  have  the  same  motions  as 
in  acute  pain,  though  less  strong. 

In  Sorrow,  the  eyebrows  rise  at  their  starting 
point,  the  nose. 

In  Laughter,  they  rise  toward  the  middle  and 
bend  down  toward  the  sides  of  the  nose. 

In  Horror,  the  eyebrows  are  knit. 

In  Sadness,  the  eyebrows  rise  toward  the  mid- 
dle of  the  forehead. 

In  Weeping,  the  eyebrows  sink  down  toward 
the  middle  of  the  forehead. 

In  Scorn,  the  forehead  wrinkles  and  the  eye- 
brows knit. 

THE  EYES 

The  eyes  are  capable  of  expressing  nearly  all 
the  states  of  mind  and  of  human  passion.  They 
seem  to  be  the  most  noble  and  expressive  of  all 

[139] 


'-7  V 


7  V 


PIG.  18. — Looks.  1 — An  ordinary  expression.  2 — Attention  and 
thought.  3 — Suffering;  suspicion.  4,  5 — Irony  and  sarcasm. 
6 — Attentive;  denoting  attention  of  the  eye  or  ear.  7 — Spying; 
penetrating.  8 — Shame;  bashfulness.  9 — Exaltation;  effort  of 
memory;  ecstasy.  10 — Physical  pain;  anger;  terror;  horror;  fear. 

[140]- 


ELEMENTS  OF  MIMICRY 

the  parts  of  the  body.  No  part  of  the  face  can 
show,  better  than  they,  noble  sentiments  and 
high  spirits  as  well  as  hate,  jealousy,  and  other 
ignoble  feelings.  They  are  called  the  mirrors  of 
the  soul.  In  prayer,  they  are  raised;  in  sorrow, 
they  weep;  in  anger,  they  burn;  in  doubt,  they 
wander;  in  anxiety,  they  are  restless.  They 
sparkle  in  joy  and  gladness  as  they  do  in  serenity 
of  mind  and  soul.  The  eyes  are  unnaturally  en- 
larged during  violent  emotions;  in  brutal  pas- 
sions, such  as  anger  or  rage,  they  are  more  lively, 
but  in  the  depressing  emotions,  such  as  horror, 
fear,  etc.,  they  seem  to  lose  their  vivacity,  even 
their  color.  They  are  sunken  in  moments  of 
sadness  and  melancholy.  In  drunkenness  they 
feel  heavy. 

When  tired,  the  look  is  lazy;  when  agitated, 
lively;  when  serene  and  in  good  spirits,  quiet. 
In  attention  or  meditation  the  look  is  hard;  in 
apathy  or  indifference,  soft ;  in  fear,  uncertainty, 
indecision,  the  eye  is  oblique.  The  man  of  guilty 
conscience  has  a  sinister,  sometimes  satanic,  look. 
The  prosaic  man's  looks  are  forced,  artificial. 
Besides  the  above,  we  have  undecided,  penetrat- 
ing, sure,  fixed,  hesitating,  ironical,  simulated, 
etc.,  looks. 


[141] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

THE  NOSE 

The  nose,  being  the  chief  characteristic  in 
esthetical  and  race  analysis,  has  a  great  impor- 
tance in  mimicry.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  it  is 
one  of  the  least  movable  parts  of  the  face,  it 
lends  splendidly  to  the  expressions ;  especially  to 
the  expression  in  which  the  breathing  apparatus 
is  involved. 

There  is  a  naturally  coordinated  collaboration 
between  the  act  of  breathing  and  the  expansion 
of  the  nostrils.  In  fear  or  anger,  when  the 
breathing  is  affected,  the  nostrils  become  dilated 
or  constricted.  There  is  a  strong  analogy  be- 
tween the  expressions  in  the  sense  of  smell  (of 
which  the  nose  is  the  principal  organ)  and  the 
expressions  of  pride,  haughtiness  and  arrogancy. 
In  these  expressions  the  nose  is  active.  In  the 
chapters  on  "Expressions  and  Make-up,"  more 
about  the  nose  will  be  found. 

THE  MOUTH 
LIPS,  CHEEKS,  CHIN  AND  JAW 

The  mouth  is  one  of  the  most  sympathetic 
parts  of  the  face.  Lavater,  the  great  Swiss 
physiologist  and  psychologist,  gave  utmost  im- 
portance to  the  mouth  in  the  analysis  of  human 
character.  (See  paragraph  on  make-up.) 

[142] 


ELEMENTS  OF  MIMICRY 

The  mouth  has  at  its  disposal  a  quantity  of 
muscles  used  for  mastication,  speech  and  song, 
and  is  very  powerful  in  expression  (especially 
the  corners  of  the  mouth  which  are  raised  in 
expressions  of  high  spirits  and  fall  in  ex- 
pressions of  low  spirits).  During  the  most 
animated  discussion  the  action  is  concentrated 
on  the  lips.  The  singer  should  not  forget 
that  the  mouth  and  lips  are  of  utmost  importance 
from  a  vocal  point  of  view  and  he  must  pre- 
pare his  mimicry  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  his 
voice. 

We  make  the  following  divisions  of  the  emo- 
tions and  states  expressed  by  the  movements  of 
the  lips: 

In  joy,  satisfaction,  content,  etc.,  the  corners 
of  the  mouth  are  curled  upwards,  thus  producing 
a  smile.  Sometimes  biting  the  lower  lip  slightly 
is  a  sign  of  satisfaction. 

In  sorrow,  disappointment,  moral  pain,  fear, 
etc.,  they  turn  down. 

In  determination,  or  severe  stubbornness,  the 
lips  are  pressed  together. 

In  sarcasm  or  irony,  the  lips  are  compressed 
and  turned  down. 

In  retained  anger,  the  mouth  is  drawn  in,  lips 
compressed;  often  people  bite  the  lower  lip  in 
trying  to  control  exploding  anger. 

[143] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

Dissatisfaction  at  a  mistake  committed  is  ex- 
pressed by  biting  the  lower  lip. 

Anger,  fury,  desire  of  vengeance  are  expressed 
by  biting  the  upper  lip  with  the  lower  jaw  ad- 
vanced, showing  the  teeth. 

In  cold  and  fear,  the  lips  and  the  whole  mouth 
tremble. 

In  ecstasy  or  admiration,  the  lower  jaw  drops 
slightly. 

In  yawning,  the  lower  jaw  falls  down. 

In  some  cases  of  contempt  and  disdain,  the 
tongue  is  pulled  out. 

Licking  the  lips  with  the  tongue  denotes  glut- 
tony, although  sometimes  it  is  a  sign  of  nervous- 
ness also. 

The  figures  on  page  145  illustrate  in  detailed 
study,  the  previous  exposition  of  the  states  and 
emotions  expressed  by  the  lips. 

THE  KISS 

The  conventional  theatrical  make-up  kiss  has 
nothing  to  do  with  the  emotions  that  prompt  it  in 
life.  On  the  stage  a  kiss  is  not  a  kiss,  and  there 
have  been  cases  where  a  too  temperamental  actoi* 
has  been  sternly  reprimanded  by  his  woman  com- 
panion. The  kiss  should  be  prepared  and  an- 
alyzed as  any  other  gesture  and  exchanged  when 

[144] 


ELEMENTS  OF  MIMICRY 

both  performers  have  a  perfect  understanding  of 
the  meaning  of  the  kiss. 

There  are  kisses  given  only,  others  received 
only,  and  some  mutually  given  and  received. 


FIG.  19. — Some  of  the  gestures  of  the  mouth.  1 — Affront;  con- 
tempt; scorn  (biting  of  the  lower  lip).  2 — Satisfaction  (biting 
of  the  lower  lip  smilingly).  3 — Anger.  4 — Menace.  5 — Fear. 
6 — Dissatisfaction.  7 — Retained  anger  (lips  drawn  in).  8 — 
Cruelty;  bestiality.  9 — Bitter  feelings  (half  open  lips  with  the 
corners  down).  10— Antipathy;  dissatisfaction.  11 — Prayer. 
12 — Lips  in  a  position  for  a  kiss. 

There  is  a  great  difference  between  a  sensual  and 
a  pure  kiss;  between  a  friendly  and  a  false  kiss; 
and  between  a  lover's  kiss  and  that  of  a  mother. 
Some  kisses  are  given  oh  the  lips,  and  some  on 
the  cheeks. 

[145] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

THE  EARS 

Inasmuch  as  the  ear  is  of  great  importance  in 
the  analysis  of  a  character,  in  theatrical  mimicry 
it  is  of  little  service  to  the  actor.  It  is  one  of 
the  least  expressive  parts  of  the  body,  rarely 
movable.  Therefore,  all  the  actor  should  know 
about  the  ears  is  in  the  part  of  make-up. 

THE  HAIR 
(See  part  on  make-up) 

THE  ARMS  AND  HANDS 

The  shoulder,  the  forearm,  and  the  hand,  with 
its  fingers,  are  the  contributors  to  the  so-called 
hand  gesture. 

This  gesture  gives  great  worry  to  the  young 
operatic  aspirant.  The  hand  gesture  never 
should  be  stiff,  artificial  nor  try  to  express  that 
which  belongs  purely  to  facial  mimicry.  The 
arms  should  not  be  considered  wings  of  a  wind- 
mill— their  movements  must  always  have  a  pur- 
pose. Classic  opera  or  aria  requires  a  great  re- 
serve of  hand  gestures.  It  would  be  difficult  and 
too  complicated  to  try  to  describe  all  the  arm  and 
hand  gestures,  or  give  rules  for  their  use,  but 
these  few  principles  given  here  below  will  serve 
to  indicate  their  chief  purpose. 

[146] 


ELEMENTS  OF  MIMICRY 

The  arm  is  projected  in  movements  of  author- 
ity or  command. 


FIG.  20. — Command. 


In  admiration,  the  arms  are  spread  and  ex- 
tended. 

In  imploring  help,  the  arms  are  held  forward. 
[147] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

A  disappointment  at  a  bit  of  news,  causes  the 
arms  to  drop  heavily. 

In  tired  states,  melancholy,  moral  distress,  the 
arms  are  held  weakly. 


Fia.  21. — Menace. 

In  anger,  the  closed  fists  are  projected  toward 
the  sky  or  the  object  of  anger  or  hatred. 

In  extreme  anger,  the  fingers  are  sometimes 
bitten.  ii 

In  distress  or  in  thoughtfulness,  the  hand  is 
on  the  head. 

In  sorrow  or  shame,  the  hands  cover  the  eyes 
or  the  face. 

In  joy,  satisfaction,  the  hand  waves. 
[148] 


ELEMENTS  OF  MIMICRY 

A  hand  on  the  breast,  is  used  in  appeals  to  con- 
science or  intimate  desire. 

In  blessing,  the  hands  are  held  over  the  person. 
A  finger  on  the  lips  implores  silence. 


FIG.  22. — Silence. 

Iii  affliction,  the  hands  are  clasped  or  wrung 
(shaking) . 

In  friendship,  they  are  extended  and  held  for- 
ward. 

In  prayer,  they  are  held  supine,  clasped. 

The  fists  on  a  level  with  the  chest  show  readi- 
ness to  fight;  stretched  and  pressed  together, 
then  open,  palms  up,  they  indicate  offense,  con- 

[149] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

tempt,  disdain,  scorn,  insult,  scandal,  affront, 
outrage. 


T.w. 


I 


FIG.  23. — Horror. 


Pendant  wrists,  alternately  opening  and  clos- 
ing, show  wasting  of  strength,  and  beginning  of 
irritation. 

[150] 


ELEMENTS  OF  MIMICRY 

The  same  movement,  more  strongly  accentu- 
ated, shows  irritation,  the  state  of  being  pro- 
voked, desire  for  revenge. 


FIG.  24. — Begging. 

The  open  wrist,  palm  down,  with  the  fingers 
well  separated,  directed  toward  another's  body 

[151] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

and  then  suddenly  closed,  means,  "/  take"  "I 
seize/'  "1  take  possession  of" 


FIG.  25. — Supplication. 

The  same  movement  but  with  the  wrist  closed 
from  the  beginning  means  "1  wish"  "I  hold" 

[152] 


"/  dominate"  "1  rule" ;  more  strongly  accentu- 
ated and  dropped,  means  "/  am  crushing,  sup- 
pressing, breaking" 

A  similar  motion,  but  done  mysteriously,  with 
the  wrist  at  first  open,  then,  with  the  fingers 
gradually  closing,  means  theft. 

The  Hand  Shake. — An  egotist,  a  cold  man, 
shakes  your  hand  without  showing  any  feeling. 
A  haughty  man  shakes  your  hand  as  though  he 
were  doing  you  a  favor  by  extending  his  hand. 
A  vulgar,  passionate  man  takes  your  hand  as 
though  he  were  going  to  bite  you.  An  aristocrat, 
especially  in  comic  parts,  extends  only  two  fin- 
gers. A  timid  person  gives  the  hand  with  uncer- 
tainty. A  kind,  generous  friend  shakes  the  hand 
with  easy,  noticeable  cordiality,  often,  even  tak- 
ing both  your  hands.  The  spontaneity  of  this 
movement,  however,  depends  completely  upon 
the  feeling  animating  one  person  towards  an- 
other. But  hypocrites  often  shake  hands  the 
same  way. 


[153] 


Hand  and  finger  gestures  serve  to  indicate 
many  different  meanings,  which  the  accompany- 
ing illustrations  describe  in  detailed  order. 


FIG.  26. — Some  of  the  gestures  of  the  hand. 
[154] 


ELEMENTS  OF  MIMICRY 

1  indicates  you,  him,  they,  this,  down,  up,  etc. 

2  points  to  the  chest  "I." 

3  the  hand  at  the  chest  means  mine,  all  my  entity.     (Both  hands 
may  be  used  for  stronger  accentuations.) 

4  shows  "only  one" — or  that  which  is  unique. 

5  indicates   "one." 

6  indicates  "two." 

7  indicates  "five." 

8  indicates  "half." 

9  indicates  "nothing. 

10  indicates  "little." 

11  means  "small." 

12  shows  "big,  tall." 

13  signifies  possession. 

14  indicates  that  which   is   sharp,   pointed. 

15  the  wrist  moving  slightly  outward  from  the  following  parts 
of  the  body,  denote: 

From  the  head — a  greeting,  a  welcome. 

From  the  mouth — a  kiss. 

From  the  heart — loveliness,  sweetness,  adoration  or  worship. 

The  motion  in  which  the  wrist  moves  several  times  inward 
in  the  direction  of  the  body  means  "approach,  come."  The 
same  movement  performed  with  both  hands  has  a  much 
stronger  meaning;  done  with  one  finger,  it  shows  rather  more 
familiarity. 

16  savs    "everybody   come" — this   motion    is   towards   the   body; 
done  with  both  hands,  the  meaning  is  more  accentuated. 

17  expresses:   "Move  aside,  separate,  disperse  the  crowd,  give  a 
passage"   (this  is  the  opposite  of  the  preceding  movement). 

18  pictures  avarice,  stinginess,  desire  to  get  rich. 

19  extends  the  hands,  saying  "let's  be  friends,"  "let's  make  peace," 
"forgive  me." 

20  shows  aversion,  dislike,  repugnance,  repulsion,  fear,  fright. 

21  says  "give  me";  asks  for  help,  charity. 

22  gives  the  meaning  "I  take  under  my  protection."    The  hand  in 
this  same  position,  but  slightly  moving  means  "the  first  word"; 
or  "be  quiet,"  "I  shall  arrange  this,"  "I  shall  fix  you." 

23  implores  "have  pity,"  "forgive  me." 

24  the  hands  denote  prayer,  invocation. 

25  is  the  gesture  of  some  one  receiving  things  with  both  hands. 

26  "I  have  nothing  to  say,"  "I  do  not  know." 

27  is  used  in  swearing  an  oath. 

28  is  the  motion  of  the  finger  being  shaken  vertically    (toward 
the  face),  and  means  warning. 

29  indicates  that  which  is  impossible,  or  a  denial   (the  motion  is 
lateral ) . 

[155] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

Quick,  appropriate  movement  of  the  hands  will 
also  describe  that  which  is  flat,  round,  square, 
large,  etc.  All  of  these  gestures  are  too  well 
known,  however,  to  need  describing. 

THE  TRUNK  AND  BREATHING  ACTION 

The  trunk  is  of  importance  in  the  expression 
of  many  emotions.  In  fear,  it  instinctively  con- 
tracts, as  it  also  does  in  admiration.  In  love, 
it  expands,  as  though  inclining  towards  the  ob- 
ject of  love;  in  hate,  it  shrinks  back.  In  piide, 
or  arrogance,  the  whole  body  seems  to  swell  so 
that  it  is  not  without  reason  that  an  arrogant 
man  in  some  of  his  movements  is  compared  to  a 
peacock.  From  the  manner  of  holding  the  trunk 
depends  much  of  the  plasticity  of  pose  in  differ- 
ent actions. 

All  of  the  trunk  movements  have  an  influence 
upon  the  breathing  organs,  resulting  in  acceler- 
ated breathing  in  moments  of  happiness  and  joy; 
irregular  breathing  in  hate  and  anger;  and  in 
near  paralysis  in  moments  of  fear  and  terror, 
etc.  The  singer  must  find  a  way  to  unite  the 
dramatic  requirements  with  the  vocal  necessities. 

THE  FEET 

It  is  strongly  inadvisable  to  rest  the  body  on 
both  feet  equally,  for,  besides  creating  uncom- 
fortable positions,  the  actor  will  find  difficulty 

[156] 


ELEMENTS  OF  MIMICRY 

when  it  is  necessary  to  take  a  step  forward,  some- 
times to  the  extent  of  rendering  himself  ridicu- 
lous. But  if  the  body  is  supported  on  one  foot, 
he  can  readily  place  the  other  in  position  when  the 
,  action  so  requires. 

The  feet  are  the  principal  factors  in  move- 
ments, such  as  walking,  dancing,  etc.  They  are 
also  important  in  characteristic  and  instinctive 
gestures  and  are  most  important  in  posing.  On 
the  manner  in  which  they  are  placed  depends  not 
only  much  of  the  grace,  character  and  plasticity 
of  pose,  but  also  stability  and  facility  in  changing 
one's  position. 

Standing  on  both  feet,  with  the  heels  pressed 
together,  the  pose  of  respect,  esteem,  considera- 
tion, respectful  waiting,  modesty,  discretion,  re- 
serve, bashfulness,  timidity,  humiliation,  degra- 
dation, servility,  slavery,  etc. 

Resting  the  body  equally  on  both  feet,  which 
are,  however,  separated,  the  pose  of  seamen, 
nor  semen,  idlers,  sluggards,  persons  of  vulgar 
habits;  also  of  men  carrying  heavy  loads. 

Same  position,  but  with  the  knees  bent,  the 
pose  of  weariness,  fatigue,  lassitude,  weakness, 
old  age,  intoxication;  also  of  the  fear  of  losing 
one's  balance. 

If  the  body  rests  on  the  foot  away  from  the 
center  of  action,  the  pose  is  one  of  unconcern,  or 
indifferent  waiting.  But  if,  on  the  contrary,  the 

[157] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

body  rests  on  the  foot  nearest  the  point  of  action, 
the  pose  will  be  of  mindfulness  and  attention. 

Facing  the  public  or  partners,  the  body  rests 
on  the  forward  foot.  This  is  the  pose  of  rapture, 
desire,  request,  demand,  command,  begging, 
wish,  conviction,  promise,  observation,  persuad- 
ing and  nearly  all  expressions  dictated  by  the 
will.  By  bending  the  knee  which  supports  the 
body,  the  same  expressions,  but  much  more  ac- 
centuated, will  be  obtained. 

Facing  the  public  or  partners,  with  the  body 
resting  on  the  back  of  the  foot,  we  shall  obtain 
the  poses  of  indecision,  wavering,  difficulty  in 
solving  a  problem,  ignorance,  moral  shaking, 
doubt,  suspicion,  hesitation,  irresolution,  melan- 
choly, fear,  caution,  negation,  refusal,  denial,  re- 
sentment, astonishment,  surprise,  horror,  con- 
tempt, disdain,  etc.  Bending  the  knee  of  same 
foot  (the  one  supporting  the  body) ,  we  shall  have 
the  same  expressions  as  before,  but  more  accen- 
tuated. The  foot  advances  in  desire  or  courage; 
retires  in  aversion  or  fear;  stamps  in  authority  or 
anger;  kneels  in  submission  or  prayer  (Austin) . 

WALKING 

The  walk  should  be  in  sympathy  with  and  gov- 
erned by  the  character  represented  and,  there- 
fore, should  have  as  much  purpose  as  any  other 

[158] 


ELEMENTS  OF  MIMICRY 

action.  It  is  very  difficult  for  a  beginner  on  the 
stage  to  master  the  art  of  walking.  Care  should 
be  taken  not  to  confuse  the  tricks  seen  on  the 
vaudeville  stage  with  the  high  requirements  of 
the  operatic  stage,  for,  needless  to  say,  the  "al- 
lure" of  the  one  is  incompatible  with  the  other. 
Although  the  walk  should  always  be  natural,  easy, 
never  stiff,  there  are  well-defined  differences  be- 
tween the  walks  to  be  used  in  comedy  and  in 
tragedy. 

In  comedy,  the  walk  is  lively,  the  steps  are 
short,  quick,  swinging.  In  tragedy,  the  walk  con- 
sists of  well-measured,  sustained  steps,  heavy, 
long  and  mysterious.  The  walk  for  solemn  occa- 
sions also  requires  well-measured,  sustained  steps, 
as  for  instance,  the  stride  of  King  or  Ramfis  in 
"Aida,"  or  of  Wotan  and  of  nearly  all  the  char- 
acters in  the  Wagnerian  operas.  To  create  an 
impression  of  discretion,  silence,  curiosity,  mys- 
tery, the  walk  on  tiptoe  is  employed,  in  instance 
of  which  we  may  cite  Othello's  entrance  in  the 
last  act  of  "Othello."  In  spying,  or  in  the  effort 
to  avoid  attention,  the  manner  of  walking  is  simi- 
lar to  springing,  as  when  the  Duke  enters  Rigo- 
letto's  house. 

Traits  of  character  may  be  realistically  de- 
picted by  the  manner  of  walking.  We  are  fa- 
miliar with  the  walk  of  the  happy  man,  which  is 

[159] 


[160] 


ELEMENTS  OF  MIMICRY 

full  of  vivacity  and  sureness  of  step.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  sad  man  falls  into  a  walk  that 
is  full  of  melancholy,  characterized  by  uncertain, 
wavering,  dragging  steps.  The  angry  man  has 
a  nervous,  violent  walk,  with  quick  jerking  steps, 
and  staggers,  in  seeming  hesitation,  as  does  Al- 
vise  in  "Gioconda." 

In  contrast  to  the  nervous  step  used  by  the 
angry  man,  the  arrogant  man  is  seen  to  walk 
firm-footedly,  with  hands  in  pockets.  While  the 
lazy  man  shuffles  along  with  slovenly  step,  his 
arms  swinging  idly  at  his  sides. 

The  walk  of  the  drunkard  is  balanceless,  swerv- 
ing in  degrees  varying  with  the  state  of  drunk- 
enness. He  walks  as  though  on  stiff,  weak,  or  too 
tender  feet,  and  often  the  feet  cross  each  other, 
as  those  of  Cassio  in  "Othello." 

Young  people  walk  more  surely  and  graciously 
than  do  people  of  middle  age.  The  latter,  in 
turn,  have  more  energetic  steps  than  the  old,  who 
walk  slowly,  for,  although  their  foot  movement 
is  very  quick,  their  steps  are  short.  In  extreme 
old  age,  the  feet  are  raised  from  the  ground  with 
difficulty,  the  limbs  giving  the  impression  of 
weakness,  or  even  of  paralysis. 

Exercises  for  the  Study  of  Walking. — The 
best  and  most  practical  advice  that  can  be  given 
on  this  subject  is  that  the  aspirant  start  with  a 

[161] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

few  elementary  dance  exercises.  The  ones  al- 
ready described  are  strongly  recommended. 
Then  let  him,  for  a  few  minutes  daily,  imitate 
the  walk  of  different  characters,  observing  care- 
fully all  their  mannerisms.  As  turning  corners 
is  most  difficult,  it  is  advisable  to  practice  walk- 
ing from  one  end  of  a  room  to  the  other — nay, 
even  from  one  piece  of  furniture  to  another.  (I 
say  "from  one  piece  of  furniture  to  another"  ad- 
visedly, because  the  space  at  our  disposal  may 
be  limited,  indeed.)  It  is  well,  then,  to  try  to  ac- 
quire all  the  ease  possible  when  exercising  our- 
selves in  close  quarters,  especially  at  the  "turning 
points." 

KNEELING 

Kneeling  rapidly  and  at  the  same  time  on  both 
feet  is  good  only  for  comic  effect.  To  kneel  with 
grace,  it  is  necessary  to  take  one  step  forward 
and  rest  the  body  on  the  forward  foot  until  the 
second  knee  touches  the  ground.  When  picking 
up  an  object  from  the  ground,  act  in  the  same 
way. 

MANNER  OF  BEING  SEATED 

The  manner  of  taking  one's  seat  has  always 
been  considered  an  indication  of  good  or  bad 
breeding,  even  from  ancient  times.  A  well-edu- 

[162] 


a 

•2 

60 

C 

I 


[163] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

cated  person  will  take  his  seat  carefully,  with- 
out crossing  the  feet.  An  intellectual  man,  in 
moments  of  deep  thought  and  reflection,  drops 
his  head  in  his  arms,  which  rest  on  his  knee.  A 
conventional  business  man  sits  with  his  feet  on 
his  desk.  Students  and  vulgar  men  sit  with  their 
legs  astride  the  chair.  The  lazy,  the  tired 
and  sometimes  the  old,  drop  heavily  into  the 
chair, — though,  in  general,  the  latter  sit  down 
with  precaution,  feeling  for  the  seat  first  with 
their  hands.  An  energetic  man  sits  erect,  some- 
times with  interlocked  hands.  Modest  people 
assume  sidewise  positions,  holding  the  head  down 
—in  other  words,  they  have  an  attitude  full  of 
respect,  even  humble;  while  a  timid  person  gives 
the  impression  of  being  afraid  to  occupy  the 
whole  seat  and  therefore  sits  on  the  edge. 

THE  SALUTATION 

People  salute  each  other  in  different  ways.  A 
haughty  man  will  never  bow  first,  and  when  an- 
swering he  hardly  touches  his  hat.  A  poor  or 
modest  man  bows  low.  A  beggar  takes  off  his 
hat,  full  of  timidity,  extending  his  hand  to  receive 
the  gift.  A  lazy  man  acts  similarly  to  the 
haughty  man.  A  good-natured  person  bows  and 
expresses  greetings.  The  soldier,  always  using 
his  official  manner,  has  a  military  bow,  even  be- 

[164] 


ELEMENTS  OF  MIMICRY 

fore  ladies.  But  all  types,  when  entering  a 
church,  should  hold  the  hat  in  the  hand  and  have 
the  head  bent  forward  upon  the  breast. 

In  playing  historical  parts  that  require  the 
wearing  of  great  hats,  it  is  necessary  to  take  off 
the  hat  with  the  semicircular  movement,  so  as  not 
to  cover  the  head.  The  stage  manager,  however, 
is  obliged  to  teach  this  matter  of  ceremony. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

EXPRESSIONS 

Facial  mimicry,  one  of  the  principal  expres- 
sions of  the  nervous  life,  is  produced  by  the  play- 
ing of  many  muscles  controlled  by  the  nervous 
system.  The  action  of  these  muscles  produces 
changes  in  the  countenance.  While  an  exten- 
sive study  of  the  anatomical  construction  of  these 
mimicry  elements  is  not  required  of  the  actor, 
still,  a  knowledge  of  the  position  of  these  muscles 
is  most  helpful.  It  is  the  best  means  of  knowing 
where  a  given  expression  has  its  fullest  develop- 
ment. 

Gamba  has  divided  the  muscles  of  the  face  into 
three  categories. 

1.  Muscles  expressive  by  themselves. 

2.  Muscles  expressive  through  association. 

3.  Auxiliary  muscles. 

1.     Muscles  expressive  of  themselves  are: 
The  frontal  muscle  (Occipito  front  alls)  which 

acts  during  attention  (A).     (See  fig.  29.) 
The  circular  muscle  of  the  eyelids  (Orbicularis 

palpebrarum)  which  acts  during  reflection  and 

meditation  (C). 

[166] 


FIG.  29. — Muscles  used  in  facial  mimicry. 


[167] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

The  muscle  at  the  pyramid  of  the  nose  (Pyra- 
midalis  nasi)  is  active  during  expressions  of  fury, 
indignation,  wrath,  disdain,  etc.  (E). 

The  muscle  that  knits  and  draws  the  eyebrows 
together  (Corrugator  supercilii)  acts  during 
painful  expressions,  grief,  etc.  (B). 

The  muscle  that  elevates  the  lip  and  dilates 
the  nostril  (Levator  labii  superioris  alae- 
que  nasi)  is  active  during  crying  and  weep- 
ing  (D). 

The  muscles  at  the  angle  of  the  mouth  (Zygo- 
maticus  major)  act  in  laughter  (H) . 

The  muscles  at  the  angle  of  the  mouth  (Zygo- 
maticus  minor)  act  during  expressions  of  affec- 
tion, love,  tenderness,  etc. 

2.     Muscles  expressive  through  association: 

The  muscle  which  moves  the  scalp  (Occipito 
frontalis)  and  the  muscles  which  draw  the  eye- 
brows downward  and  inward  (Corrugator  super- 
cilii) act  when  engaged  in  the  remembrance  of 
painful  or  pitiful  objects. 

The  muscle  at  the  pyramid  of  the  nose  (Pyra- 
mid alls),  the  muscle  that  elevates  the  chin  or 
lower  lip  (Levator  menti)  (P)  and  the  muscles 
which  draw  the  eyebrow  downward  and  inward 
(Corrugator  supercilii),  all  become  engaged  in 
menace;  danger. 

The  Pyramidalis,  Levator  menti,  Corrugator 
[168] 


EXPRESSIONS 

super  cilii  and  the  muscle  of  mastication  (Masse- 
ter)  act  in  aggressiveness. 

The  circular  (Orbicular)  muscle  of  the  lips, 
the  Zygomaticus  minor  and  the  Corrugator  su- 
percilii  are  concerned  with  crying. 

The  frontal  muscle  (Occipito  frontalis)  and 
the  muscles  of  the  chin  (Quadratus  menti)  act  in 
surprise,  agreement,  ravishment,  admiration  and 
strong  fear  or  terror. 

The  muscle  that  knits  and  draws  the  eyebrows 
together  (Corrugator  super  cilii),  and  the  muscle 
arising  from  the  base  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  in- 
serted into  the  angle  of  the  mouth  ( Triangularis 
om),  act  in  depression  or  weakness. 

3.     Auxiliary  muscles  are: 

The  Orbicular,  the  muscle  of  the  lips  (K) . 

The  Quadratus  menti.,  the  muscle  of  the  chin 
(O). 

The  Buccinator,  the  muscle  that  com- 
presses the  cheeks  (Q),  retracts  the  angle  of  the 
mouth. 

EXPRESSIONS 

The  expressions  or  imprints  on  our  face  and 
body  are  the  result  of  the  internal  upheaval  of 
our  passions,  of  the  workings  of  our  minds,  or  of 
the  excitement  of  our  senses.  Consequently  the 
expressions  can  be  divided  into : 

[169] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

1.  Expressions  of  the  senses,  or  a  separate 
faculty  of  perception  connected  with  a  special 
organ  of  the  body.    They  are  sight,  hearing,  taste, 
smell  and  touch,  which  are  subject  to  pleasant  or 
painful  impressions.     These  impressions  act  di- 
rectly upon  the  whole  body  or  parts  of  it,  thus 
producing  the  fundamental  mimicry  of  pleasure 
and  pain. 

2.  Expressions  of  the  passions,  such  as  love, 
hatred,  wrath,  etc.    These  are  rich  in  the  elements 
of  mimicry. 

3.  Intellectual  expressions  or  the  workings  of 
the  thought  process,  such  as  attention,  reflection, 
meditation,  etc.    Contrary  to  the  expressions  of 
the  passions,  the  intellectual  processes  are  not 
strongly  indicated  by  exterior  signs. 

4.  General  expressions,  or  those  caused  by  in- 
ternal feelings  and  states  of  mind  for  varied  rea- 
sons, such  as  impatience,  irony,  courage,  etc. 

The  two  poles  of  general  expressions  are  "ac- 
tion and  repose/'  In  repose  we  are  lying  down 
or  seated.  The  mimicry  of  expression  gradually 
dies  out  until  we  fall  asleep.  Action  is  just  the 
opposite  of  repose.  In  action  our  will  and,  con- 
sequently, our  expressions,  gradually  awaken  un- 
til they  develop  into  a  form  capable  of  mimicry. 

5.  Simulated  expressions  are  the  ones  dic- 
tated by  the  will  in  order  to  cover  the  explosions 

[170] 


EXPRESSIONS 

of  the  passions  and  certain  intellectual  processes, 
such  as  hypocrisy,  falsity,  etc. 

PLEASURE  AND  PAIN 

There  is  no  existence  without  both  pain  and 
pleasure.  Darwin  teaches  that  at  birth  our  con- 
sciousness is  awakened  by  pain.  In  later  life  it 
warns  us  of  danger  and  acts  as  a  safeguard  to 
the  body. 

Psychologists  have  thoroughly  investigated 
the  characteristics  of  pain  and  pleasure,  and  Man- 
tegazza,  after  having  written  two  very  interest- 
ing volumes  on  these  subjects,  divides  the  ex- 
pressions of  pleasure  and  pain,  according  to  the 
sources  from  which  they  are  derived,  into : 

1.  Pleasure  and  pain  of  the  senses. 

2.  Pleasure  and  pain  of  the  passions. 

3.  Pleasure  and  pain  of  the  intellect. 

4.  Pleasure  and  pain  of  the  body. 

The  mimicry  of  pain  or  pleasure  of  the  senses 
manifests  itself  mostly  around  the  organ  of  a 
specific  sense.  Pain  of  the  visual  senses  (eye) 
can  be  produced  by  looking  at  an  unpleasant  or 
sad  picture;  pain  to  the  sense  of  hearing,  by  lis- 
tening to  some  ultra-futuristic  music,  for  in- 
stance. 

The  expression  of  pleasure  of  the  passions  is 
illustrated  by  love,  which  impels  noble  emotions 

[171] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

while  pain  of  the  passions  may  be  illustrated  by 
hatred,  which  prompts  low  actions. 

Intellectual  pain  or  pleasure  reflects  itself  in 
the  eye  and  forehead,  thus  producing  frowns  and 
wrinkles  on  all  the  upper  part  of  the  face. 


FIG.  30.— Pain. 

Bodily  pain  is  thus  splendidly  described  by 
Bell: 

In  bodily  pain  the  jaws  are  fixed,  and  the  teeth  grind; 
the  lips  are  drawn  laterally,  the  nostrils  dilated ;  the  eyes 
are  largely  uncovered  and  the  eyebrows  raised;  the  face 
is  turgid  with  blood,  and  the  veins  of  the  temple  and  fore- 
head distended ;  the  breath  being  checked,  and  the  descent 
of  blood  from  the  head  impeded  by  the  agony  of  the  chest, 
the  cutaneous  muscle  of  the  neck  acts  strongly  and  draws 

[172] 


EXPRESSIONS 

down  the  angles  of  the  mouth.  But  when,  joined  to  this, 
the  man  cries  out,  the  lips  are  retracted  and  the  mouth 
open;  and  we  find  the  muscles  of  his  body  rigid,  straining, 
struggling.  If  the  pain  be  excessive  he  becomes  insensible, 
and  the  chest  is  affected  by  sudden  spasms.  On  recover- 
ing consciousness,  he  is  incoherent,  until  again  roused  by 
suffering.  In  bodily  pain  conjoined  with  distress  of  mind, 
the  eyebrows  are  knit,  while  their  inner  extremities  are 
raised;  the  pupils  are  in  part  concealed  by  the  upper  eye- 
lids; and  the  nostrils  are  agitated. 

The  external  symptoms  of  pleasure  are  often 
the  laugh  and  the  smile;  of  pain,  crying  and 
weeping. 

THE  SMILE— THE  LAUGH 

The  smile  seems  to  be  one  of  the  first  conscious 
expressions  of  the  human  being.  The  smile  is  one 
of  the  chief  expressions  of  the  mouth,  and,  like 
the  look  in  the  eye,  it  varies  with  the  character  of 
the  person.  It  is  the  fundamental  expression  in 
cheerful,  benevolent  characters.  The  smile,  then 
the  laugh!  According  to  Darwin,  there  is  a 
gradation  from  the  smile  to  the  hearty  laugh,  and 
these  degrees  should  be  carefully  observed  by 
the  artist. 

The  mimicry  of  laughter  consists  in  the  follow- 
ing movements:  the  mouth  opens,  showing  the 
teeth.  The  upper  lip  is  raised,  together  with  the 
cheek,  which  produces  a  quantity  of  small  wrin- 

[173] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

kles  under  the  eyes,  which  are  brilliant,  and  the 
eyebrows  are  raised.  In  a  paroxysm  of  laughter 
and  its  prolonged  duration,  tears  appear  in  the 
eyes.  The  laugh,  like  the  cry,  involves  the  vocal 
machinery  and  these  vowels  give  a  special  char- 
acter to  the  laugh: 

So,  Ah,  ha,  ha, — open  laugh. 
Eh,  hey,  hey, — intelligence,  approving,  teas- 
ing. 

Eeh,  hee,  hee, — diffidence,  irony. 
Oh,  ho,  ho, — surprise. 
Ooh,  hoo,  hoo, — marveling. 

In  comedies,  laughing  can  be  produced  by 
tickling. 

Joy,  happiness  and  good  humor  are  strongly 
and  permanently  marked  on  the  face  by  a  smile. 
If  this  permanent  mark  takes  on  a  cynical,  mali- 
cious expression,  it  is  a  sign  of  a  cruel,  sinister 
character.  Such  should  be  the  smile  of  Mephisto 
in  "Faust,"  and  of  Rigoletto  in  certain  moments 
at  the  beginning  of  the  opera  "Rigoletto."  So 
we  see,  that  the  laugh  is  not  always  the  sign  of 
good  humor  or  joy,  for  there  is  the  cynical,  the 
malicious,  the  false,  the  sardonic,  and  the  satanic 
laugh,  all  of  which  are  expressions  of  hate  and 
other  bad  sentiments. 

In  opera,  laughter  can  be  rhythmical  or  un- 
[174] 


EXPRESSIONS 


rhythmical.  The  best  specimens  of  rhythmical 
laughter  is  that  of  Bonci  in  "Ballo  Maschera"  in 
the  aria  "E  Scherzo  ed  e  follia,"  of  the  female 
quartet  in  "Falstaff,"  of  Mephisto  in  "Faust," 
and  of  Mephisto  in  "Mephisto,"  etc.  The  un- 
rhythmical laugh  depends,  for  its  efficiency,  upon 
the  interpretive  talent  of  the  singer  himself. 


i. 


FIG.  31. — The  smile  and  laugh. 

1 — Desire  to  please  (mouth  as  in  whistling).  2 — Restrained 
smile.  3. — Smile,  normal.  4  and  5— Ironic  smile.  6 — Hearty 
laugh. 

A  cynical  smile  often  accompanies  a  plan  for 
murder  or  revenge,  though,  sometimes,  the  same 
smile  shows  satisfaction  at  a  committed  crime  or 
vengeance. 

[175] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

CRYING 

Crying  expresses  emotion  contrary  to  that  of 
laughing.  In  crying,  it  is  also  necessary  to  ob- 
serve the  crescendo  and  diminuendo,  so  as  to 
avoid  possible  monotony.  Usually,  the  crying 
begins  with  a  slight  tremolo  in  the  voice,  then 
gasping,  then  a  loud  breath  between  one  word 
and  another.  The  voice  grows  stronger  and  the 
weeping  begins,  cutting  every  word  with  the 
breath,  sometimes  repeating  the  syllables.  Then 
only  comes  the  outburst  of  weeping,  which  is  no 
longer  restrained  or  controlled. 

Throughout  this  process,  the  eyes  are  half 
closed,  the  eyebrows  and  the  forehead  wrinkled, 
the  mouth  open  and  the  corners  of  the  mouth 
drooping.  The  whole  body  is  in  a  weak,  relaxed 
condition.  Often  the  bare  hands  alone,  or  aided 
by  a  handkerchief,  cover  the  face. 

The  cry  can  be  an  imploring  one  (Rigoletto  in 
Act  III) ,  or  one  of  repentance,  like  that  of  Kun- 
dry  in  "Parsifal;"  or  it  can  be  false  or  simulated. 
When  it  is  sincere,  it  is  the  best  expression  of 
moral  or  physical  pain,  especially  in  a  woman. 
In  hysterics,  often  there  is  an  excess  of  anger 
which  finally  expresses  itself  in  a  paroxysm  of 
weeping,  as  if  relief  were  thus  sought. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  crying,  so  that,  to  be 
[176] 


EXPRESSIONS 

convincing,  the  artist  must  give  careful  study  and 
analysis  to  the  requirements  of  a  role  calling  for 
this  expression  of  sorrow  and  pain.  Young  peo- 
ple, for  instance,  cry  unrestrainedly ;  older  people 
are  more  moderate  in  their  crying;  while,  in  the 
very  old,  the  cry  is  similar  to  a  lament. 

LOVE  IN  ITS  DIFFERENT  STATES  AND 
EXPRESSIONS 

Love,  in  its  various  forms,  as  mother  love,  love 
between  lovers,  love  of  country,  is  among  the 
strongest  of  human  passions.  But,  receiving  its 
impulse,  as  it  does,  from  the  deep,  silent  life  of 
thought  and  feeling,  it  does  not  show  itself  so 
much  outwardly  by  the  more  tangible  signs  of 
other  emotions.  However,  the  facial  movements 
are  similar  to  those  seen  in  joy, — the  heart  beats 
are  accelerated  and  the  breathing  is  affected. 
Yet  love  is  an  essence  whose  real  breath  is  ex- 
pressed in  more  delicate  forms, — the  gentle  smile, 
the  brightened  look,  the  tender  clasp,  the  kiss,  all 
are  signs  whereby  this  emotion  may  be  shown. 

And  withal  we  must  make  note  of  the  fact  that 
love  often  causes  sorrow  and  tears,  which  state 
then  admits  of  the  more  marked  expressions  of 
grief,  either  pure  or  mixed  with  joy,  as  in  the 
case  of  a  meeting  after  long  absence. 

Affection  is  a  lesser  degree  of  love.  It  is  mani- 
T177] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

fested  by  an  expression  of  happiness  at  sight  of 
the  object  of  devotion — the  head  advances 
slightly,  the  look  becomes  lively  as  it  fixes  itself 
on  the  one  loved;  the  eyebrows  are  slightly 
raised,  the  forehead  is  serene,  the  mouth  smiles, 
the  nostrils  dilate. 

Devotion  is  an  enduring  state  of  love  or  affec- 
tion. It  is  not  content  with  expressing  itself 
solely  in  words  or  feelings,  but  is  active;  it  must 
express  itself  in  deeds  of  thoughtfulness  and 
tender  solicitude. 

Joy  is  the  result  of  intense  satisfaction  and 
happiness.  It  can  be  manifested  by  clapping  the 
hands,  dancing,  singing,  laughing,  etc.  As  in 
other  expressions  of  high  spirits,  the  forehead  is 
serene,  the  eyes  are  open,  the  look  is  brilliant, 
the  corners  of  the  mouth  are  slightly  turned  up. 
In  joy,  the  face  is  expanded,  while  in  grief  it  is 
lengthened. 

A  violent  joy  is  manifested  by  intense,  noisy 
laughter.  This  outburst,  however,  may  start 
from,  or  be  gradually  moderated  until  diminished 
into,  a  broad,  gentle  smile,  which  will  indicate 
cheerfulness.  The  whole  body  and  muscles  are 
then  more  relaxed  and  the  forehead  is  not  con- 
tracted. A  cheerful  man  is  an  optimist.  His 
thoughts  are  centered  in  lively  and  noble  emo- 
tions. 

[178] 


EXPRESSIONS 

Sympathy  is  the  taking  part  in  the  happiness 
or  distress  of  others.  Consequently,  the  expres- 
sions of  the  sympathetic  person  are  affected  by 
the  high  or  low  spirits  of  others. 

Benevolence  or  kindness  is  the  first  degree  of 
friendship  and  love.  The  possession  of  this  qual- 


FIG.  32. — Attention  of  the  eye. 

ity  is  the  sign  of  a  happy,  noble  character,  and 
must  imprint  an  expression  of  smiling  serenity 
on  the  face;  leave  an  allure  of  happiness  in 
the  whole  demeanor.  It  is  the  mark  of  the 
high-bred  person.  A  noble  example  of  this  state 
is  the  attitude  of  the  father  in  the  opera  "Linda," 
during  the  aria  "Ambo  Nati." 

[179] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

INTELLECTUAL  AND  OTHER  EXPRESSIONS 

Attention  is  a  state  of  mind.  In  its  expres- 
sion the  head  is  bent  forward  slightly,  the  eye- 
brows sink  and  approach  the  sides  of  the  nose, 
the  eyes  look  in  the  direction  of  the  object  that 


FIG.  33. — Painful  concentration. 


is  attracting  notice,  and  the  mouth  is  slightly 
open. 

Though  the  attention  aroused  may  be  of  the 
eye,  ear,  taste,  smell  or  touch,  the  attitude  is  al- 
ways a  mental  one,  as  there  is  a  focusing  of  the 

[180] 


EXPRESSIONS 

thought  process  on  the  spot  from  which  the  bod- 
ily senses  have  been  attacked.  So,  when  the  gaze 
is  attracted  by  something  in  the  distance,  the  at- 
titude of  mind  is  a  "waiting"  one,  or  in  other 
words,  the  attention  becomes  alert,  the  hand 
shades  the  eye  as  the  mind  directs  a  search  to 
discover  the  object.  When  the  sense  of  hearing 
is  attacked,  the  hand  often  moves  upward  to  the 
ear  in  an  attempt  to  locate  the  source  of  the 
sound. 

The  facial  expression  will  "register"  satisfac- 
tion, pleasure,  admiration,  fear,  or  terror,  ac- 
cording as  the  object  that  was  attracting  atten- 
tion is  discovered  to  bear  these  characteristics. 
For  instance,  in  the  last  act  of  "Othello,"  Desde- 
mona's  attention  resolves  itself  into  wild  terror. 

Surprise. — Attention,  then,  can  be  turned  into 
surprise,  admiration,  astonishment  or  amazement. 
In  surprise,  the  eyes  are  raised  higher  than  in 
attention,  the  mouth  is  open,  transverse  wrinkles 
appear  across  the  forehead,  the  eyebrows  are  ab- 
normally arched.  Often  the  hands  are  raised 
above  the  head,  or  the  arms  are  bent  at  the  level 
of  the  head.  The  palms  are  directed  towards  the 
object  of  surprise,  the  fingers  are  separated. 
When  surprise  is  disagreeable  or  causes  the 
necessity  of  self-defense,  these  movements  are 
directed  forward,  away  from  the  body. 

[181] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

Naturally,  the  intensity  of  these  movements 
depends  upon  the  degree  of  the  emotion.  They 
increase  in  strength  and  vividness  of  expression 


FIG.  34. — Admiration. 

when  surprise  passes  into  astonishment  or  amaze- 
ment. 

Astonishment;  Amazement. — This  state  has 
the  same  characteristics  of  motion  and  gesture  as 
that  of  surprise,  only  more  strongly  accentuated. 

Admiration  consists  of  pleasant  surprise, 
mixed  with  a  feeling  of  satisfaction  and  a  sense 
of  approval.  The  head  turns  toward  the  object 
admired,  the  eyebrows  are  gently  raised,  the  eyes 
are  opened  more  than  ordinarily,  the  look  is 

[182] 


EXPRESSIONS 

bright,  the  mouth  is  parted  by  a  faint  smile,  and 
the  lower  jaw  drops  slightly. 

The  "Visual  Senses,"  senses  of  sight,  are  called 
into  play  when  admiration  is  mingled  with  a  re- 


FiG.  35. — Meditation. 

membrance  of  the  native  land,  in  which  instance 
we  may  cite  the  recitative  "II  mulino,"  etc.,  done 
by  Rodolfo  in  "Somnambula,"  and  also  the  scene 
in  "A'ida"  when  the  admiring  masses  greet  the 
victorious  Radames. 

[183] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

Admiration  may  be  called  the  satisfied  atten- 
tion of  the  senses. 

Reflection,  which  is  deep  and  long  thought, 
consists  of  an  analysis  of  the  idea  or  thing  under 


T.W. 


FIG.  36.— Reflection. 

consideration.  The  state  of  reflection  does  not 
admit  of  very  expressive,  characteristic  mimicry, 
until  we  find  an  obstacle  to  overcome,  in  which 
case  we  frown,  thus  denoting  the  intellectual  ef- 
fort sustained. 

[184] 


EXPRESSIONS 

Meditation  may  rightly  be  called  the  sister  of 
reflection.  It  is  a  purely  intellectual  expression. 
During  its  process,  the  lower  eyelids  are  wrinkled 
and  raised.  The  expression  of  the  eyes,  which 


FIG.  37.— Attention. 

are  not  fixed  on  any  object,  is  peculiar,  indicat- 
ing only  absorption;  the  head  drops  slightly,  so 
that  it  can  be  supported  by  the  hand ;  the  mouth 
is  slightly  open,  therefore  the  lower  jaw  drops. 
The  body  is  in  a  relaxed  position,  all  the  effort 

[185] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

being  concentrated  in  the  brain.  The  reflection 
may  often  be  perplexed,  and  in  such  moments  we 
raise  our  hands  to  our  forehead,  mouth  or  chin. 

Decision;  Determination. — This  process  may 
often  come  as  a  result  of  reflection  or  meditation. 


FIG.  38.— Fear. 


Decision  is  characterized  by  a  firm  closing  of  the 
mouth.  The  gesture  is  energetic  in  case  the  deci- 
sion is  a  resolve  not  to  yield — Alfio  in  "Caval- 
leria,"  but  it  is  slow,  undecided,  if  the  deci- 
sion is  to  yield  to  wit ;  Violetta  when  she  gives  in 
to  the  demands  of  the  father. 

[186] 


EXPRESSIONS 

Fear;  Terror. — Astonishment  often  results  in 
fear,  in  which  case  the  eyes  and  the  mouth  are 


FIG.  39. — Horror. 


wide  open,  the  eyebrows  raised,  and  the  fore- 
head wrinkled.  In  the  first  rush  of  fear,  the  body 
remains  motionless  and  the  trunk  seems  to' 

[187] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

dwindle  in  size.    The  breathing  is  accelerated,  the 
heart  action  is  exaggerated  and  irregular,  result- 


T.w. 


FIG.  40.— Terror. 


ing  in  the  striking  pallor  so  characteristic  of  fear 
and  terror  (Margherita  in  the  prison  scene  of 
"Faust,"  and  Boito's  Mephistopheles,  and  Des- 

[188] 


EXPRESSIONS 

demona  in  the  last  act  of  "Othello,"  are  exam- 
ples). Some  muscles  tremble,  especially  those 
of  the  lips.  Other  indications  very  dangerous 
for  a  singer  to  show  are  dryness  of  the  mouth, 
and  contraction  of  the  throat,  for  these  result  in 
vocal  inconvenience.  The  nostrils  are  dilated. 
The  look  may  be  fixed  on  the  object  causing 
terror,  but  it  may  also  wander,  as  if  seeking  some 
means  of  salvation.  The  hands  can  be  alter- 
nately closed  and  opened,  often  with  twitching 
movements.  The  arms  may  be  thrown  widely 
ever  the  head. 

Dr.  J.  Crichton  Browne  gives  the  following 
description  of  terror  in  an  insane  woman : 

When  a  paroxysm  seizes  her,  she  screams  out,  "This  is 
hell!"  "There  is  a  black  woman!"  "I  can't  get  out!"  and 
other  such  exclamations.  When  thus  screaming,  her  move- 
ments are  those  of  alternate  tension  and  tremor.  For  one 
instant  she  clenches  her  hands,  holding  her  arms  out  before 
her  in  stiff,  semiflexed  position;  then,  suddenly,  she  bends 
her  body  forward,  sways  rapidly  to  and  fro,  draws  her 
fingers  through  her  hair,  clutches  at  her  neck,  and  tries  to 
tear  off  her  clothes.  The  sterno-cleido-mastoid  muscles 
(which  serve  to  bend  the  head  on  the  chest)  stand  out 
prominently,  as  if  swollen,  and  the  skin  in  front  of  them  is 
much  wrinkled.  Her  hair,  which  is  cut  short  at  the  back 
of  her  head,  and  is  smooth  when  she  is  calm,  now  stands 
on  end,  that  in  front  being  disheveled  by  the  movements  of 
her  hands.  The  countenance  expresses  great  mental  agony. 
The  skin  is  flushed  over  the  face  and  neck,  down  to  the 
clavicles,  and  the  veins  of  the  forehead  and  neck  stand  out 
like  thick  cords.  The  lower  lip  drops,  and  is  somewhat 

[189] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

averted.  The  rnouth  is  kept  half  open,  with  the  lower 
jaw  projecting.  The  cheeks  are  hollow  and  deeply  fur- 
rowed in  curved  lines  running  from  the  wings  of  the  nos- 
trils to  the  corners  of  the  mouth.  The  nostrils  themselves 
are  raised  and  extended.  The  eyes  are  wide  open,  and 
beneath  them  the  skin  appears  swollen ;  the  pupils  are  large. 
The  forehead  is  wrinkled  transversely  in  many  folds,  and 
at  the  inner  extremities  of  the  eyebrows  it  is  strongly  fur- 
rowed in  diverging  lines,  produced  by  the  powerful  and 
persistent  contraction  of  the  corrugators. 


Horror. — The  difference  between  terror  and 
horror  is  this:  terror  may  be  called  an  alarm 
for  personal  safety,  but  horror  is  created  by  sym- 
pathy for,  and  shock  at,  the  sufferings  of  others. 
These  expressions  are  similar  in  mimicry,  for,  as 
Darwin  explains,  "by  the  power  of  imagination 
and  of  sympathy,  we  put  ourselves  in  the  posi- 
tion of  the  sufferer  and  feel  something  akin  to 
fear"  (note  the  chorus  in  Valentine's  death  in 
"Faust"). 

The  body  turns  away  from  the  object  or  cause 
of  horror;  the  arms  violently  protrude  or  bend 
at  the  chest;  the  mouth  is  open,  the  lower  jaw 
is  dropped,  the  forehead  is  wrinkled,  the  eye- 
brows are  arched.  Horror  has  exactly  the  same 
influence  on  the  body,  heart  and  respiration  as 
terror. 

It  may  sometimes  cause  self-sacrifice  and  a 
decision  to  protect  others. 

[190] 


EXPRESSIONS 

Hatred. — Dislike  is  the  beginning  of  hatred. 
Hatred  in  well-educated  persons  is,  to  a  great 
measure,  concealed,  but  in  low  characters  it  is  ex- 
pressed violently,  so  that,  we  may  say,  it  ex- 
plodes: Tonio  in  "Pagliacci"  when  his  love  is 


changing  to  hatred,  or  I  ago,  when  scheming 
against  Othello,  will  differently  express  their 
feelings.  Hatred  may  burst  forth  in  maledic- 
tion, as  that  of  Monterone  in  "Rigoletto,"  or  it 
can  prompt  bad  and  low  actions,  as  in  the  case 
of  Tonio  in  "Pagliacci,"  etc. 

Rage  is  an  explosion  of  anger.    It  is  a  brutal 
passion  in   which,   especially   among  the   lower 

[191]  ' 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

classes,  the  will  has  no  control  over  the  emotion. 
In  rage,  every  muscle  of  the  face  is  contracted 
so  that  an  enraged  man  may  be  likened  to  a  beast ; 
he  exposes  his  teeth;  his  eyes  burn;  he  knits  and 
unknits  his  brow;  his  eyebrows  are  raised;  his 
nostrils  are  distended ;  his  teeth  are  set ;  his  mouth 
is  closed;  his  fists  are  clenched;  his  arms  are 
raised;  and  the  veins  stand  out  on  his  head  and 
neck.  There  is  a  seeming  desire  to  crush  every- 
thing. 

In  rage  the  breathing  process,  the  heart  action 
and  the  brain  are  affected,  so  that  apoplectic 
strokes  often  follow  the  outbreak.  When  rage 
is  developing,  the  gesture  seems  to  be  purpose- 
less. 

Rage  has  a  depressing  effect  upon  the  breath- 
ing. Interpretation  of  these  passions  must  be 
well  under  control  by  the  singer. 

The  expressions  of  hatred  and  rage  may  be 
strongly  observed  in  a  mob,  especially  during  a 
lynching. 

Anger. — Darwin  thus  describes  an  outbreak 
of  anger  between  people: 

At  first  she  vituperated  her  husband,  and  whilst  doing 
so  foamed  at  the  mouth.  Next  she  approached  close  to 
him  with  compressed  lips,  and  a  virulent,  set  frown.  Then 
she  drew  back  her  lips,  especially  the  corners  of  the  upper 

[192] 


EXPRESSIONS 

lip,  and  showed  her  teeth,  at  the  same  time  aiming  a  vicious 
blow  at  him. 

A  second  case  is  that  of  an  old  soldier  who,  when  he  is 
requested  to  conform  to  the  rules  of  the  establishment,  gives 
way  to  discontent,  terminating  in  fury.  He  commonly  be- 
gins by  asking  Dr.  Browne  whether  he  is  not  ashamed  to 


FIG.  42. — Anger. 

treat  him  in  such  a  manner.  He  then  swears  and  blas- 
phemes, paces  up  and  down,  tosses  his  arms  wildly  about, 
and  menaces  any  one  near  him.  At  last,  as  his  exaspera- 
tion culminates,  he  rushes  up  towards  Dr.  Browne  with  a 
peculiar  sidelong  movement,  shaking  his  doubled  fist,  and 
threatening  destruction.  Then  his  upper  lip  may  be  seen 
to  be  raised,  especially  at  the  corners,  so  that  his  huge 
canine  teeth  are  exhibited.  He  hisses  forth  his  curses 

[193] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

through  his  teeth,   and  his   whole   expression   assumes   the 
character  of  extreme  ferocity. 

Indignation  is  nothing  else  than  rage  in  a 
slight  degree,  and,  consequently,  has  all  the  char- 
acteristics of  rage  "in  miniature." 


FIG.  43. — Defiance. 

Sneering  and  Defiance  are  still  other  degrees 
in  the  rising  passion  of  rage. 

Scorn. — The  forehead  is  wrinkled,  although 
much  less  than  in  anger.  The  eyebrows  are  knit 
together  and,  at  one  extremity,  approach  the 
nose,  while  at  the  other  they  are  raised.  The  chin 
is  advanced,  the  head  tossed  back,  the  look  cold. 

[194] 


EXPRESSIONS 

The  nostrils  are  distended,  thus  wrinkling  the 
cheeks.  The  under  lip  protrudes  and  causes  the 
corners  of  the  mouth  to  take  a  downward  curve. 
The  mouth  is  almost  always  shut,  but  is  some- 
times slightly  open  on  one  side,  uncovering  the 
canine  tooth. 


FIG.  44. — Disdain. 

Disdain. — We  show  disdain  for  a  person  to- 
ward whom  we  feel  antipathy.  The  whole  scene 
of  "Tosca"  in  Scarpio's  room  is  full  of  disdain, 
as  is  also  the  entrance  of  Amonasro  in  "Ai'da." 

The  expression  of  disdain  and  contempt  origi- 
nates around  the  nose,  for  this  movement  is  simi- 
lar to  the  one  made  when  the  sense  of  smell  is 

[195] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

offended.  Piderit  has  observed  that,  in  extreme 
cases  of  disdain,  both  lips  are  protruded  and 
raised,  or  the  upper  lip  alone,  so  as  to  close  the 
nostrils  as  by  a  valve,  the  nose  being  thus  turned 
up.  Snapping  the  fingers  is  another  sign  of  dis- 
dain or  contempt. 

Disgust. — The  feeling  produced  when  in  con- 
tact with  something  that  offends  our  feelings  or 
taste  is  called  disgust.  This  expression,  too, 
originates  around  the  mouth.  It  is  signaled  by 
frowning,  by  holding  the  mouth  wide  open  and 
the  upper  lip  strongly  retracted.  This  movement 
wrinkles  the  sides  of  the  nose,  causing  the  lower 
lip  to  protrude.  The  shoulders  are  raised  as  in 
horror. 

The  expressions  of  scorn,  disdain,  contempt, 
disgust,  have  much  similarity  to  the  expressions 
of  hatred,  rage,  etc.  They  all  represent  low 
spirits. 

GENERAL  EXPRESSIONS 

Impatience,  Restlessness,  Desire,  are  all  gen- 
eral expressions  in  which  the  richness  of  mimicry 
is  dependent  upon  the  source  or  cause  of  the 
emotion.  So  we  may  be  impatient  in  love,  in 
pain,  and  in  varied  states  of  the  soul  and  mind. 

Impatience  is  a  state  of  nervousness  which  is 
characterized  by  uncertain  movements  and  ges- 

[196] 


EXPRESSIONS 

tures.  The  walk  is  nervous,  irregular,  and  the 
gesture  seems  to  explode.  The  look  is  dis- 
tracted, the  forehead  wrinkled.  When  impa- 
tience is  the  beginning  of  anger  or  rage,  as  it 
often  is,  we  pull  the  hair,  bite  the  fingers,  strike 
the  table  with  the  fists,  etc. 


FIG.  45. — Irony. 

The  mimicry  of  desire  bears  a  strong  resem- 
blance to  the  cause  producing  it.  In  the  desire 
to  be  loved,  the  mimicry  of  impatience  will  be 
associated  with  the  one  of  love.  In  the  desire 
for  vengeance,  hate  will  combine  with  eagerness 
to  accomplish  one's  purpose. 

[197] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

Desire,  prompted  by  noble  sentiments,  is  char- 
acterized by  having  the  eyebrows  drawn  close 
together,  the  eyes  wider  open  than  usual,  the  nos- 
trils raised  and  contracted  toward  the  eyes,  and 
the  mouth  half  open. 

Agitation  and  Anxiety  are  more  general  ex- 


FlG.  46. — Irony. 

pressions  whose  mimicry  is  very  similar  to  the 
one  of  impatience. 

The  state  of  waiting  shows  a  combination  of 
desire  and  impatience. 

Different  complex  states  of  mind  like  vanity, 
conceit,  jealousy,  avarice,  revenge,  suspicion, 

[198] 


EXPRESSIONS 

ambition,  humility,  etc.,  can  all  be  classified  as 
general  expressions.  Some  of  these  might  be 
classified  under  simulated  expressions,  for,  since 
they  represent,  if  not  always  low  instincts,  at 
least  ignoble  impulses,  people  usually  try  to  con- 
ceal them.  Blushing,  wavering  eyes,  restless 
with  uneasy  motion,  forehead  wrinkled,  eyebrows 
lowering,  eyelids  partly  closed,  frowning,  etc., 
are  the  chief  characteristics  of  their  expressions. 
Their  mimicry,  however,  according  to  Darwin,  is 
not  distinct  enough  to  allow  detailed  descrip- 
tion. 

Arrogance ;  Pride. — The  peacock  and  the  tur- 
key cock  are  the  emblems  of  pride.  The  body 
and  head  are  erect,  the  trunk  is  enlarged  to  its 
fullest  extent,  the  walk  is  measured.  The  mouth 
is  closed,  the  expression  is  a  frowning  one,  and 
there  are  always  signs  of  contempt  written  on 
the  countenance.  The  proud  man  is  over-con- 
fident, looks  down  upon  others,  and  his  every  mo- 
tion is  artificially  sure.  Basilio  ve  lo  giura  in 
"Barber  of  Seville"  is  an  example  of  conceit. 

Humility  is,  of  course,  the  direct  opposite  of 
the  expression  worn  by  pride. 

Helplessness  and  Impotence. — The  idea  of 
helplessness  or  of  the  impossible  is  expressed  by 
quickly  raising  both  shoulders,  bending  the  el- 
bows in  toward  the  body,  and  raising  open  hands, 

[199] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

turning  them  outward  with  the  fingers  sepa- 
rated. The  head  is  held  to  one  side,  the  eyebrows 
elevated,  wrinkles  cross  the  brow,  and  the  mouth 
is  almost  wide  open. 

Lack  of  Understanding  is  similarly  expressed. 


FIG.  47. — Arrogance. 

Hypocrisy,  Falsity,  etc. — The  most  trying 
feature  to  control  in  all  the  simulated  expres- 
sions of  daily  life  is  the  eye.  Being  the  mirror 
of  the  soul,  it  with  difficulty  obeys  the  thought 
or  will  power  in  adapting  itself  to  expressions 
of  hypocrisy  and  falsity.  For  instance,  in  simu- 
lated anger,  the  eyebrows  will  be  wrinkled,  and 

[200] 


EXPRESSIONS 

the  mouth  may  show  the  usual  signs  of  anger, 
hut  one  look  will  he  sufficient  for  a  keen  observer 
to  discover  that  the  feeling  is  feigned. 

The  simulated  expressions  can  be  love,  hate, 


FIG.  48. — Hypocrisy. 

admiration,  pity,  etc.  On  the  stage  these  are  pre- 
sented by  an  exaggerated  mimicry  and  gesture 
suited  to  the  state  or  feeling  simulated.  How- 
ever, the  mimicry  and  gesture  must  lack  sincer- 
ity. Some  people,  especially  among  the  business 

[201] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

class,  wear  a  never-failing  mask  behind  which 
they  cover  their  real  sentiments,  thoughts  and 
ideas.  This  may  be  called  the  first  degree  of 
hypocrisy.  The  hypocrite  on  the  stage  must  have 
some  special  characteristics  that  will  at  once  in- 
dicate him.  So  the  look  of  such  a  type  is  a  shift- 
ing one;  the  head  is  held  slightly  down,  an  arti- 
ficial, forced  smile  adorns  the  lips,  and  a  hesi- 
tancy governs  his  entire  attitude. 

EFFECTS  OF  PATHOLOGICAL  STATES  ON 
THE  EXPRESSIONS 

Madness  is  a  sickness  of  the  brain  which,  like 
any  other  sickness,  varies  in  kind  and  degree  with 
different  manifestations  for  different  periods.  It 
is  often  the  direct  result  of  great  mental  and 
moral  anguish,  such  as  the  death  of  dear  ones  or 
disappointment  in  love  (Lucia  in  "Lucia"  or  Lo- 
thario in  "Mignon") . 

The  walk  and  attitude  of  insane  persons  are  to 
be  studied.  The  insane  man  walks  without  guid- 
ance or  direction,  being,  for  the  most  part,  self- 
centered  and  governed  by  his  sick  thoughts,  and 
can  be  compared  to  an  automobile  with  the  steer- 
ing gear  broken.  He  passes  rapidly,  as  does  a 
child,  from  one  emotion  to  another,  for  instance, 
love  to  hate.  The  permanent  expression  on  the 
face  of  a  lunatic  depends,  of  course,  upon  the 

[202] 


EXPRESSIONS 

character  of  his  malady,  so  we  have  the  furious, 
the  melancholic,  the  quiet,  etc.,  types.  Of  great 
importance  in  the  portraiture  of  insanity  is  the 
part  the  eye  plays.  It  has  a  look  that  is  at  once 
penetrating,  cutting,  lively,  yet  unnatural. 

In  playing  the  parts  of  lunatics,  the  artist  must 
avoid  all  theatrical  acrobatism,  for  any  exaggera- 
tion will  mar  the  success  of  his  portraiture. 

Pathological  states  and  their  manifestations 
are  often  studied  by  artists  from  life  in  the  hos- 
pital and  sanitariums  themselves.  This  is  advis- 
able, providing  the  artist  can  endure  the  nerve 
strain  occasioned  by  these  harrowing  scenes. 

Nervousness  is  manifested  by  especial  and 
repeated  movements  of  the  hands,  feet,  eyes,  and 
other  parts  of  the  body.  Some  nervous  people 
bite  the  nails,  or  open  and  close  the  hand  with- 
out apparent  reason.  Others  have  a  certain  danc- 
ing swing  to  their  walk;  again  others  move  the 
neck  continuously.  There  are  those  who,  when 
they  talk  with  you,  must  touch  your  clothes  or 
pull  at  your  buttons,  as  if  in  desire  to  impress 
you  more  and  so  convince  you;  and  again  those 
who  are  continuously  adjusting  the  hair,  whiskers 
or  beard,  or  worse,  those  who  can't  keep  from 
touching  the  nose ;  those  who  scratch  the  body  or 
head  unceasingly;  and  the  ones  who  yawn  dis- 
tressingly. The  observation  of  all  these  types 

[203] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

will  be  of  great  assistance  to  the  artist  when  he 
is  preparing  scenes  depicting  impatience. 

Trembling  may  be  another  form  of  nervous- 
ness, or  occasionally  a  manifestation  of  cold  ( first 
act  of  "Boheme"),  or  it  may  be  the  result  of  old 
age.  In  the  latter  case,  the  gesture  is  developed 
with  the  increased  trembling  of  the  entire  body. 
or  of  the  certain  parts  in  agitation.  And  so  the 
hand  of  a  very  old  man  when  he  picks  up  a  glass 
to  drink  will  tremble  slightly  at  the  moment  of 
taking  up  the  glass  but  will  tremble  more  and 
more  as  his  hand  nears  his  mouth  so  that,  when 
he  should  touch  the  glass  to  his  lips,  the  liquid  is 
thrown  out.  In  very  old  age  the  head,  in 
approval,  trembles  vertically;  in  denial,  later- 
ally. 

Again,  it  is  interesting  to  make  use  of  the  well- 
known  fact  that  low  characters  tremble  when  in 
danger  of  their  lives. 

Drunkenness. — From  a  slight  degree  of  in- 
toxication to  total  drunkenness,  there  is  a  gradu- 
ated scale  of  increase,  thereby  calling  for  a  varied 
expression  of  these  different  stages.  The  "tipsy" 
man  is  characterized  by  a  slight  lack  of  balance 
in  walking,  good  humor  and  a  certain  half-sense- 
less eloquence.  The  drunken  man  staggers 
along;  his  feet  are  either  stiff  or  weak;  his  eyes, 
sleep-laden,  so  that  it  is  with  effort  that  he  keeps 

[204] 


EXPRESSIONS 

them  open  just  enough  to  see  where  he  is  going 
(Cassio  in  "Othello,"  Act  I.) 

Some  drunken  men,  however,  are  conscious  of 
their  condition  and  try  to  hide  it.  Their  efforts 
to  keep  and  walk  straight,  their  forced  raising  of 
the  head,  offer  unlimited  observation  and  study 
to  the  actor.  And  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that 
the  ordinary  character,  temperament  and  habits 
reveal  themselves  unconsciously  in  the  drunken 
state,  so  that  a  well-educated  man,  even  under  the 
influence  of  liquor,  will  act  differently  from  a  vul- 
gar, uneducated  man. 

As  the  degree  of  drunkenness  increases,  the 
feet  waver,  the  hands  fall,  the  eyes  close,  for  the 
drunken  man  has  no  more  strength  to  keep  them 
open.  The  whole  body  relaxes  and  the  hair  and 
clothes  fall  into  complete  disorder. 

Death. — The  manner  of  portraying  death  de- 
pends upon  the  cause  of  the  death.  Death  fol- 
lowing tuberculosis  can  come  gradually,  like  the 
pale  flickering  of  a  lamp  in  which  the  oil  is  slowly 
burning  out  (Mimi  in  "Boheme").  This  form 
will  be  characterized  by  a  weakening  of  gestures, 
mimicry  and  voice  in  keeping  with  the  decreasing 
of  the  vital  forces.  But  in  a  death  like  that  of 
Violetta  in  "Traviata,"  the  sick  person  seems  at 
first  to  regain  all  his  strength,  then  lose  it,  then 
regain  it,  several  times,  perhaps,  before  the  end 

[205] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

which,  when  it  conies,  comes  suddenly  and  con- 
sumes the  body  quickly,  as  if  in  a  fiery  furnace. 
In  other  cases,  death  may  come  after  a  more  or 
less  long  illness.  The  agony  of  suffering  is  then 
long  and  drawn  out  so  that  it  leaves  special  marks 
upon  the  face  and  body.  It  goes  without  saying, 
of  course,  that,  besides  the  mimicry,  the  make-up 
in  these  cases  must  be  adapted  to  the  situation  at 
hand.  The  actor  should  be  pale,  even  ghastly, 
the  eyes  and  cheeks  sunken.  The  look  must  ex- 
press the  feelings  that  animate  the  dying  person. 
Again,  death  may  be  inflicted  by  the  knife,  as 
that  of  Ernani,  or  it  may  be  the  result  of  a  duel 
with  swords,  as  that  of  Valentine  in  "Faust."  In 
cases  like  this,  a  short  agony  follows  the  fatal 
wounding  and  the  actor,  falling  to  the  floor,  has 
often  to  sing  as  he  lies  there  awaiting  the  end. 
The  act  of  falling  is  very  difficult  for  it  must  not 
appear  painful,  but  natural,  "in  tone"  with  the 
scene,  and  aesthetic.  Before  the  fall  occurs,  if 
time  permits,  it  is  well  to  make  a  few  balanceless 
steps  to  give  the  impression  of  trying  to  find  some 
kind  of  support  for  the  body.  When  actually 
falling,  after  the  wound  has  been  received,  I 
should  advise  rising  slightly  on  the  tips  of  the 
fingers  and  then  falling  down  again,  face  towards 
the  audience.  The  feet  must  bend,  nearly  cross- 
ing, and  the  body  must  be  let  "roll"  down,  as  it 

[206] 


EXPRESSIONS 

were,  while  one  is  on  bended  knee.  In  doing 
this  it  is  helpful  to  use  the  hands  for  support  when 
Hearing  the  floor. 

Another  form  of  death  in  the  final  scenes  of 
operas  is  death  by  poison  like  Fedora  or  Leonora. 

In  intelligent  preparation  of  the  part  where 
this  form  of  dying  occurs,  the  effects  of  poison 
on  the  body  should  be  carefully  studied  from 
scientific  works,  as  the  subject  is  vast  and  does 
not  admit  of  adequate  treatment  in  a  study  of  this 
sort. 

Death  from  paralysis  (a  shock)  is  instantane- 
ous and  its  portraiture  on  the  stage  consists  of 
showing  a  hardening  of  the  muscles  by  shocks. 

Life  in  Prison,  Moral  Death,  can  easily  be 
compared  to  agony  of  life.  It  taxes  the  subtlest 
art  of  the  actor.  Here  he  may  have  to  depict  the 
despairing  apathy  of  the  life-prisoner  in  his  cell, 
or  the  prolonged  sufferings  of  an  agony-branded 
soul.  He  must  show  by  a  convincing  art  as  well 
as  by  skillful  artifice,  such  as  emaciated  body, 
dull,  sunken  eyes  and  projecting  cheek  bones, 
that  such  feverish  psychology  can  and  does  con- 
sume the  body  as  if  by  slow  fire. 


PART  III 
MAKE-UP 


CHAPTER  IX 

EVOLUTION    OF    "MAKE-UP" 

The  origin  or  inception  of  the  art  of  "make- 
up" cannot  be  recounted  with  infallible  preci- 
sion, due  no  doubt  to  the  fact  that  very  little 
thought  was  given  to  this  particular  practice. 
The  ever- prevailing  desire  for  adornment  and 
beautifying  as  well  as  an  inclination  to  be  unreal 
seems  to  be  instinctive  in  human  beings  from 
every  clime.  The  use  of  paints  or  stains  are 
traceable  as  far  back  as  about  4500  years  ago. 
The  Egyptians  at  that  time  practiced  the  use  of 
green  and  white  paints,  concocted  in  different 
ways,  but  most  always  employing  herbs,  leaves 
and  bark  scraped  from  tropical  trees.  They  used 
this  paint  to  change  the  expression  of  their  faces 
and  eyes.  History  relates  that  the  Heteras  of 
Greece  used  make-up.  Indians  and  the  yellow 
races  are  known  to  have  painted  their  faces  and 
bodies  when  on  the  warpath  in  order  to  instill 
fear  in  the  enemy.  Some  people  in  Eastern 
Europe  and  Asia  painted  their  teeth,  nails  and 
eyebrows.  Back  to  the  twelfth  century,  at  the 
extravagant  Royal  Court  of  Italy  and  in  France, 

[211] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

the  frivolous  and  pleasure-loving  people  of  the 
court  used  large  quantities  of  make-up  prepara- 
tions. 

While  it  is  not  possible  to  state  definitely  the 
time  and  place  of  the  inauguration  of  make-up 
on  the  stage,  an  almost  reliable  account  is  handed 
down  to  us  through  the  tireless  pen  of  historians 
to  the  effect  that  at  Greece  during  holiday 
festivities  in  honor  of  their  gods,  such  as 
Bacchus,  Olympus,  Zeus,  etc.,  the  participants 
in  the  celebrations  painted  their  faces.  Unlike 
our  present  one-day  holiday,  the  festal  days  of 
the  Greeks  lasted  usually  for  eight  or  more 
days,  during  which  young  and  old  from  every 
walk  of  life  enjoyed  witnessing  the  sacrifices, 
prize-fights  and  dramatic  performances — the  lat- 
ter were  called  mysteries.  Phesphis  is  reported 
to  have  given  a  certain  style  (form)  to  those  mys- 
teries and  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  to 
introduce  the  transformation  of  the  face  on  the 
stage. 

There  was  no  knowledge  of  make-up  displayed 
at  the  antique  Theater,  because  the  actors  in  com- 
edies or  tragedies  are  known  to  have  used  masks 
to  give  the  desired  facial  expressions  and  to  im- 
personate the  characters  of  their  role.  To  con- 
vey an  idea  of  how"  crude  their  masquerade  really 
was,  it  will  suffice  to  relate  that  the  color  of  the 

[212] 


EVOLUTION  OF  "MAKE-UP" 

hair  was  painted  on  the  mask  and,  when  wigs 
were  used,  they  were  attached  to  the  mask  and 
ofttimes  a  sort  of  two-injone  mask  was  used, 
namely,  a  crying  face  in  front  and  a  laughing 
face  in  the  back.  The  actor  wearing  this  peculiar 
and  unique  double  mask  would  turn  to  face  the 
audience  showing  the  sad  or  jovial  side  in  accord- 
ance with  his  cue.  Approximately  one  thousand 
years  after  the  era  of  Christ  the  mask  was  not  in 
use  on  the  stage ;  thus  we  find  the  actors  without 
disguise. 

However,  "necessity  is  the  mother  of  inven- 
tion," and  the  versatility  of  the  human  brain  soon 
conceived  ways  and  means  by  which  actors  could 
bring  about  desired  facial  changes  to  suit  the  por- 
trayal of  characters  until  the  fundamentals  were 
established  to  that  which  is  to-day  called  the  "art 
of  make-up." 

Up  to  about  1850,  there  were  only  three  dry 
colors  used,  that  is,  white  (chalk),  black  (burned 
cork),  and  vegetable  red.  This  was  followed  by 
homemade  grease  paints,  produced  from  fats  and 
colors.  Make-up  sticks,  now  being  used,  were 
invented  about  1870  and  it  was  that  advent  which 
revolutionized  the  art  of  make-up.  Thus  were 
the  dangerous  dry  colors  replaced,  and  continu- 
ous, beneficial  progress  followed.  Little  do  the 
people  of  the  twentieth  century  know  that  the 

[213] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

perfection  of  the  good  actor's  make-up  is  an  ac- 
complishment attained  by  a  due  process  of  evo- 
lution that  is  as  near  to  perfection  as  present- 
day  range  of  imaginations  will  permit. 

WHAT  IS  "MAKE-UP?" 

The  facial  lines  disclose  to  the  eyes  of  the  keen 
observer  the  character  inherent  in  us.  This  fact 
in  itself  explains  best  what  "make-up"  really  is— 
its  intention  and  purpose.  The  profession  of  the 
people  behind  the  footlights  is  invariably  to  be 
what  they  are  not  in  private  life.  In  other  words, 
stagefolk,  whether  playing  on  vaudeville,  legiti- 
mate or  operatic  stage,  come  nearer  to  the  resur- 
rection theory  than  anything  the  widest  imagina- 
tion can  dream.  They  impersonate  characters 
that  may  have  existed  only  in  the  versatile  brain 
of  a  fiction  writer  or  that  were  perhaps  brought  to 
the  limelight  by  a  few  drops  from  the  goosequill 
of  an  ancient  historian  arousing  the  sensation- 
eager  public  to  the  heroic  deeds  of  a  Chester- 
fieldian  knight.  At  any  rate,  the  successful  per- 
former is  called  upon  to  interpret  the  facial  and 
temperamental  characteristics  of  subjects  whom 
nature,  from  a  physical  and  emotional  point  of 
view,  has  endowed  differently  from  his  own  per- 
son. 

[214] 


EVOLUTION  OF  "  MAKE-UP  " 

Make-up  is  symbolical  of  outward  expressions 
of  character;  therefore,  it  is  necessary  to  give  a 
precise  portrayal  of  the  intended  impersonation 
by  changing  the  facial  lines  or  nature-bestowed 
mask  before  a  thought  to  the  required  mimicry 
can  be  given. 

The  art  of  "make-up"  is  a  decorative  art  of  the 
very  highest  degree  which  if  studied  on  a  scien- 
tific basis  enables  the  adept  to  transform  face  and 
body  for  the  creation  of  a  type  as  intended  by  its 
creator  and  that  is  entirely  acceptable  to  the  au- 
dience either  at  a  close  or  distant  point  of  ob- 
servation. The  ability  to  convey  the  impression 
of  reality  to  the  audience  should  be  the  aim  of 
every  performer. 

INDIVIDUALITY  SUBMERGED  IN  A 
CLEVER  "MAKE-UP" 

A  painter  who,  as  if  by  magic,  gives  a  repro- 
duction with  his  brush  of  most  anything  the 
eye  perceives,  must  first  know  the  laws  of  pro- 
portion, the  art  of  designing,  and  must  cultivate 
observation  and  application  long  before  he  learns 
the  blending  of  colors  into  shades  that  rival  na- 
ture itself.  For  stagefolk  to  be  real  and  transmit 
the  impression  of  reality  to  the  audience,  they 
must  learn  to  study  the  different  types  one  en- 

[2151 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

counters  in  every-day  life.  Observe  the  facial 
characteristics,  the  varying  emotional  types,  re- 
member the  changes  of  the  face  they  would 
mimic.  Analyze  the  human  soul,  its  innermost 
feelings  and  how  these  feelings  change  visibly 
face  and  body.  Every  one  possesses  the  gift  of 
observation;  develop  it  and  progress  will  be  ap-. 
parent  in  the  fidelity  to  nature  of  your  "make- 
up." Your  memory  is  a  storehouse  where  you 
may  domicile,  mentally,  many  different  charac- 
ters who  cross  your  path  in  your  private  life,  and 
when  you  are  called  upon  to  portray  a  certain 
character,  search  your  mental  storehouse  and 
bring  forth  the  person  you  saw  in  real  life  who 
would  answer  the  very  description  of  the  part 
you  are  about  to  perform  behind  the  footlights. 
It  is  not  your  lines  correctly  spoken  that  con- 
tribute to  the  first  impression  on  the  audience, 
it  is  your  individuality  effaced  or  submerged  in 
a  clever  make-up  that  will  satisfy  the  imagina- 
tion of  the  spectators  to  the  extent  of  seeing  be- 
fore them  only  the  character  which  you  are  im- 
personating. Avoid  the  mistake  of  making  a 
geographical  landscape  of  your  face ;  but  remain 
true  to  nature,  using  only  such  "make-up"  as  will 
offer  a  perfect  live  painting  or  personal  repro- 
duction of  the  specific  character  portrayed  to 
your  audience. 

[216] 


EVOLUTION  OF  "  MAKE-UP  " 

APPLICATION  AND  REMOVAL  OF 
"MAKE-UP" 

Application. — Preliminary  to  applying  "make- 
up," self -protection  comes  into  consideration. 
Never  fail  first  to  cover  the  face  or  any  other 
part  that  is  to  be  made  up  with  a  nonpoisonous 
grease  substance,  such  as: 

Vaseline  Cocoanut  butter 

Lanoline  Glycerine,  etc. 

Cold  Cream 

By  following  this  simple  precaution  you  have 
safeguarded  your  skin  by  covering  the  perspiring 
pores  with  a,  so  to  speak,  preservative.  This  fun- 
damental grease  must  be  applied  in  moderate 
quantity,  as  it  may  otherwise  prove  impossible 
to  keep  the  make-up  colors  intact  while  on  the 
stage.  An  exaggerated  use  of  the  grease  will 
make  the  ground  or  flesh  color  too  wet  and  con- 
sequently exclude  adhesiveness.  Premature 
aging,  especially  in  facial  lines  of  stagefolk,  is, 
in  most  instances,  on  account  of  faulty  treatment 
of  the  make-up  material  in  its  application. 

The  nose  is  always  the  starting  point.  Begin- 
ning at  this  facial  organ,  in  a  circular  movement 
all  make-up  should  be  applied.  This  being  the 
well-known  facial  massage  gesture,  its  constant 
use  in  the  application  of  make-up  will  surely 

[217] 


THE  SIXGER  AND  HIS  ART 

promote  the  appearance  of  facial  lines  and  will 
eliminate  the  unnecessary  exciting  of  the  face 
muscles  and  the  skin,  always  leaving  the  way 
open  for  the  destruction  of  the  bloom  of  youth. 

The  use  of  the  right  kind  of  soap,  though  it 
may  seem  a  small  matter,  is  one  of  extreme  im- 
portance. Highly  scented  or  perfumed  soaps 
are  usually  manufactured  from  animal  fats. 
The  use  of  such  soaps  should  be  avoided.  Glyc- 
erine, boric,  thymole,  lanoline  or  vaseline  soaps 
are  the  most  desirable.  However,  it  is  advisable 
to  select  just  one  kind  and  use  that  continuously 
in  everyday  as  well  as  professional  life. 

This  alone  for  the  ladies: 

Avoid  dry,  artificial  preparations  when  off 
the  stage.  The  ingredients  composing  such  are 
invariably  injurious  and  will  only  irritate  the 
skin. 

Make-up  colors  and  all  paraphernalia  should 
be  kept  immaculately  clean  to  prevent  dust  or 
dirt  from  marring  the  make-up.  Clean  top  of 
tube  or  jar  with  a  clean  piece  of  soft  paper  be- 
fore, as  well  as  after,  using.  "An  ounce  of  pre- 
vention is  worth  a  pound  of  cure." 

The  foregoing  paragraphs  have  explained 
some  very  vital  points  in  the  correct  application 
of  make-up.  Particular  attention  has  been  di- 
rected to  the  possible  detrimental  effects  the  non- 

[218] 


EVOLUTION  OF  "  MAKE-UP  " 

observance  of  fundamental  rules  may  have  upon 
the  skin.     No  less  care  must  be  taken  with  the 
removal  of  make-up  in  order  to  insure  a  beau- 
tiful and  healthy  skin. 
Removal : 

1.  Use  the  same  grease,  but  this  time  in  lib- 
eral abundance. 

2.  Apply  this  very  gently,   avoid   even   the 
least  pressure  on  the  skin  and  wipe   off 
with    cotton,    silk    paper    or    any    other 
inexpensive     fabric    which    may    be    in- 
discriminately discarded.     Make-up  ruins 
towels. 

3.  Repeat  the  first  operation,  but  in  smaller 
quantity,  several  times  if  necessary,  until 
the  make-up  is  completely  off  your  face. 
Each  time  use  a  clean  "wiper." 

4.  Hot   water   is   the   next    cleaning    agent, 
never  cold  water.     Use  the  soap  to  which 
you   have   become   accustomed   and   pref- 
erably a  soft  sponge  or  camel's  hair  brush 
should  be  used. 

5.  After  the  washing,  a  little  eau  de  cologne 
(no  perfume)  or  alcohol  should  be  diluted 
with  water  (hot)  and  applied. 

6.  Finish  off  by  dusting  liberally  with  a  soft 
talcum,  unscented,  either  boric  or  pure  rice 
powder. 

[2191 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

FUNDAMENTAL  RULES 

Nature  in  her  infinite  wisdom  has,  we  are 
told,  created  all  men  alike  with  the  exception  of 
the  facial  lines,  formation  of  head,  etc.  Hence, 
fundamental  rules  in  the  art  of  make-up  are  one 
of  the  elementary  factors  with  which  the  artist 
has  to  cope.  The  architect  commissioned  to 
erect  an  edifice  is  obliged  to  observe  minutely 
the  fundamentals  of  building  laws  when  laying 
his  foundation  upon  which  the  structure  is  to 
stand.  Regardless  of  the  many  obstructions  he 
may  encounter,  such  as  rocks,  sand  and  other 
obstacles,  he  must  lay  his  foundation  upon  a 
perfectly  leveled,  well  prepared  and  cultivated 
ground,  ofttimes  artificially  built  in  order  to 
make  way  for  the  plans  of  the  structure  itself. 
As  the  architect  cultivates  the  natural  ground, 
so  must  the  successful  artist  cultivate  and  lay 
the  foundation  upon  his  own  lines  bestowed  by 
nature  before  applying  the  make-up  for  the 
character  he  is  to  portray  on  the  stage.  Inas- 
much as  the  facial  lines  are  vastly  different,  it 
is  utterly  impossible  to  work  out  one  specific 
rule  to  apply  simultaneously  to  every  one.  But 
if  the  fundamental  rules,  based  upon  per- 
sonal experience  and  also  upon  collected  data 
from  some  of  the  greatest  celebrities  of  the 

[220] 


EVOLUTION  OF    'MAKE-UP" 

stage,    are   followed,   desirable   results   will   be 
achieved. 

1.  Apply  the  ground  or  flesh  color  before  you 
attempt  details  of  your  make-up.    Refrain 
from  manipulating  the  eyes  until  you  have 
completed  the  ground  color. 

2.  Every     subsequent     line     or     application 
should  be  well  thought  out  with  a  relent- 
less   eye    to    the    character    about    to    be 
portrayed.     Each  line  must  have  a  mean- 
ing,   describing    some    desired    character- 
istic. 

3.  Know  the  individuality  of  your  own  face. 
Do  not  copy  from  your  colleagues;  study 
from  life  and  make  the  character  as  realistic 
as   possible,    bearing   in    mind   your    own 
ground  upon  which  to  build. 

4.  In  the   event   of  an  artificial  nose  being 
needed  in  your  make-up,  be  sure  to  shape 
the  nose  before  you  begin  your  ground- 
work. 

5.  Whenever  occasion  arises  for  the  use  of 
spirit  gum,  no  grease  paint  or  other  oily 
substance  should  remain  on  the  skin. 

C.    In  the  portrayal  of  a  lively  character,  less 
coloring  should  be  used.     In  fact,  always 
avoid  too  many  colors,  as  they  have  a  tend- 
ency to  disharmonize  your  mimicry. 
[221] 


7.  Wrinkles  and  hollows  are  made  more  ef- 
fective when  kept  in  one  color   (dark  red 
or  brown)  ;  darkening  or  lightening  this 
color  in  accordance  with  lighting  effects 
used  during  the  performance  (see  follow- 
ing paragraphs). 

8.  Pronounced  white  colors  when  confronting 
strong  lights  are  too  abrupt  and  should  be 
avoided.  Bear  in  mind  that  high  lights  and 
all  light  lines  or  points  are  brightening  with 
a  decided  tendency  of  bringing  you  in  closer 
proximity  to  the  audience,  whereas  dark 
lines  are  narrowing  and  denote  distance. 

9.  Keep  from  using  black  color  alone  except 
for   "beauty   spots"   or  when  to   effect   a 
dental  illusion,  such  as  a  missing  tooth. 

10.  In  order  to  make  a  beard  or  mustache 
appear  natural,  the  hair  (artificial)  should 
be  smoothed  and  pressed  gently,  yet  firmly, 
against  the  skin  with  a  towel  or  cloth  until 
the  spirit  gum  is  almost  dry.  An  impor- 
tant touch  when  applying  a  false  beard  is 
the  "joining  touch,"  that  is,  for  example, 
when  you  apply  a  full  beard  to  the  chin 
and  you  have  naturally  a  divided  or  dim- 
pled chin,  be  sure  to  affix  the  beard,  fol- 
lowing natural  lines;  thus  the  reality  of 
your  make-up  is  materially  enhanced. 
[222] 


EVOLUTION  OF  "  MAKE-UP  " 

11.  Particular   care   must   be   taken   that   all 
materials,    paints,    cosmetics,    colors,    etc., 
are  absolutely  fresh  and  of  superior  qual- 
ity. 

12.  The  avoidance  of  a  wig,  whenever  possi- 
ble, is  suggested,  as  your  own  hair  can  be 
made   to   harmonize   with   your   make-up 
after  a  little  practice. 

IN  THE  DRESSING  ROOM 

Your  entire  make-up  utensils  should  be  in 
front  of  your  looking  glass,  and  always  within 
reach.  Dress  the  lower  part  of  your  body  in 
the  costume  you  are  going  to  wear  before  you 
begin  the  make-up.  This  will  leave  only  the 
upper  part  of  yourself  to  be  dressed  after  your 
face  is  made  up.  A  coat  or  duster  similar  to 
that  worn  by  a  painter  is  suggested;  also  the 
spreading  of  a  clean  towel  or  cloth  across  the 
knees  to  avoid  soiling  by  the  occasional  dropping 
of  grease  paint  or  powder. 

Smoothness  of  the  skin  is  very  desirable  when 
tights  are  worn  or  stockings  are  visible,  there- 
fore, to  avoid  wrinkles,  only  specially  made 
underwear  should  be  worn.  Sometimes  extra 
made  woolen  or  worsted  undertights  may  be 
used. 

Male  performers  should  avoid  paste  immedi- 
[223] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

ately  after  shaving.    It  smarts  the  skin  and  may 
have  lasting  detrimental  consequences. 

Be  cautious  and  take  into  consideration  the 
age,  character  and  social  position  of  the  part  you 
play.  Stage  lights  and  the  dimensions  of  the 
hall  must  be  borne  in  mind.  Make-up  and  cos- 
tume must  harmonize  with  environment. 

OPTICAL  INFLUENCE  AND  DELUSION 
THROUGH  LIGHTING  EFFECTS 

In  advance  of  your  plans  for  make-up,  find 
out  every  particular  of  the  lighting  arrange- 
ments to  be  used  on  the  stage  where  you  are  to 
appear,  as  the  colors  of  your  make-up  must  be 
in  absolute  harmony'  with  the  light  effects  or 
your  best  efforts  will  be  in  vain.  Before  one  can 
fully  master  the  influence  of  light  on  make-up, 
a  little  experience  is  desirable.  This  experience 
can  be  obtained  by  experiments  in  your  dressing 
room  by  using  various  colored  papers  to  cover 
the  lights  surrounding  your  mirrors.  The  colors 
of  this  paper  should  be  the  same  or  nearly  the 
same  as  the  colors  of  lights  to  be  used  upon  the 
stage.  This  practice  affords  the  easiest  and  most 
practical  control  for  the  achievement  of  a 
make-up,  correct  in  every  detail,  conforming  to 
the  lighting  effects  intended  by  the  stage 
manager. 

[224] 


EVOLUTION  OF  "  MAKE-UP  " 

Gazing  at  the  stage  from  the  audience,  the 
stage  in  full  lights  appears  nearer  to  the  audi- 
ence, and  if  dark,  the  stage  seems  farther  away. 
From  these  facts,  we  conclude  that  the  stronger 
the  lights,  the  softer  must  be  all  the  make-up, 
that  is,  the  more  precise  must  be  all  the  lines  of 
the  entire  mask.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  stage 
is  kept  dark  or  in  dim  light,  the  colors,  shades 
and  lines  of  your  make-up  must  be  accentuated 
very  strongly  in  order  to  be  effective.  A  gen- 
eral rule  may  be  adopted,  and  that  is  to  use  the 
same  colors  as  the  lights,  only  make  them  heavier 
and  more  pronounced;  but  good  judgment  of 
proportions  must  be  used  when  following  this 
rule,  because,  at  times,  insufficiency  of  one  color 
may  have  to  be  covered  with  a  superfluency  of 
another. 

Some  examples  of  the  effects  of  colors: 

Red  Lights : 

The  red  markings  in  your  make-up  would 
actually  be  devoured  and  the  dark  lines 
would  be  augmented,  whereas  in  white 
lights,  this  make-up  with  "red"  would  be 
emblematical  of  the  character  to  be  por- 
trayed— in  the  red  light  effect,  it  should  be 
pale  and  corpselike.  The  same  applies  to 
red  hair. 

[225] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

Blue  Lights: 

The  make-up  looks  paler — all  red  lines  and 
spots  appear  violet  and  accentuated.  In 
blue  light,  red  color  changes  radically,  hence 
special  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  red 
color.  Blue  and  gray  blue  lose  much 
in  their  shades  when  they  are  shown  in 
blue  light;  therefore,  they  should  be  applied 
stronger  and  darker  than  when  shown  in 
white  light. 


Green  Lights: 

Although  rarely  used  on  a  big  stage,  almost 
every  make-up  in  green  lights  looks  death 
pale,  disagreeable  and  unsympathetic.  This 
light  effect  is  only  used  in  death  scenes  or 
when  Satan  is  impersonated  as,  for  instance, 
in  Mephistopheles.  In  such  instances,  it  is 
advisable  to  use  a  make-up  as  simple  as 
possible. 


Yellow  Lights: 

Almost  as  disadvantageous  as  green,  bright 
red  colors  should  be  used  as  yellow  colors 
lose  their  effects.  Strong  flesh  color  will 
give  good  results. 

[226] 


EVOLUTION  OF  "  MAKE-UP  " 

THE  MAKE-UP  BOX 

The  make-up  box  should  contain: 
Grease  paint,  flesh  colors. — They  are  the 
fundamental  colors  of  the  skin  and  depend 
upon  the  race,  age,  temperament,  and  condition 
of  health  of  a  person,  etc.  These  being  used  for 
ground  work,  must  be  applied  before  any  detail 
work  is  started.  They  come  in  several  shades. 

Grease  paint,  special  colors. — These  are  used 
to  give  the  face  the  special  characteristics  de- 
sired. The  make-up  box  should  contain  the  fol- 
lowing : 

White,  which  will  serve  for  high  lighting 
of  wrinkles,  nose  and  chin,  chin  bones,  etc. 
Black,  used  to  underline  the  eyes. 
Red,  carmine,  used  in  the  corners  of  the  eye; 
also  to  obtain  other  special  effects. 
Dark  red  or  brown,  used  in  the  wrinkles. 
Blue,  used  for  sinking  the  eyes,  imitating  an 
unshaved  beard,  etc. 

Red  for  the  lips. — There  are  a  number  of 
kinds  of  "red"  on  the  market  for  the  lips.  It 
also  comes  in  different  shades.  But  the  best 
quality  obtainable  should  be  used. 

Dry  carmine  (red). — This  is  used  by  the 
women  more  than  the  men  in  dry  make-up,  espe- 

[227] 


cially  for  concerts.  Very  often  it  is  applied  on 
finished  make-up  for  special  effects. 

Mascaro. — This  is  a  special  preparation  to 
change  the  color  of  the  hair,  beard,  etc.  It  is 
easy  to  wash  off,  and  is  guaranteed  harmless. 

Nose  putty  (Nasen  kit) . — This  can  be  bought 
already  made  and  serves  to  change  the  contours 
of  the  nose  and  cheeks. 

Crepe  Hair. — This  is  a  German  invention  and 
serves  in  the  making  of  beards,  mustaches  and 
eyebrows.  It  comes  in  all  the  shades  necessary 
to  make-up. 

Mustache  paste. — This  is  used  to  hide  the 
mustache,  if  you  have  one. 

Spirit  Gum. — This  is  a  preparation  used  to 
apply  the  beards.  It  seems  that  adhesia  is  more 
in  favor  in  the  United  States,  as  it  has  superior 
sticking  qualities.  Adhesia  can  be  purchased  in 
tubes. 

Scissors. — It  is  very  important  that  the  make- 
up box  should  contain  two  or  three  pairs  of 
scissors:  two  pairs  of  ordinary  scissors  and  one 
pair  of  manicure  scissors.  They  are  very  neces- 
sary in  adjusting  artificial  beards  and  whiskers. 

Powder. — Powder  comes  in  different  shades, 
and  must  be  in  harmony  with  general  funda- 
mental color.  The  make-up  is  never  complete 
unless  it  has  had  a  generous  application  of 

[228] 


EVOLUTION  OF  "  MAKE-UP  " 

powder.  The  make-up  box  should  have  three  or 
four  fundamental  shades  of  powder.  The  neces- 
sary colors  can  be  obtained  by  the  proper  mixing 
of  them. 

Powder  Puffs. — Every  box  of  powder  should 
have  its  own  puff.  Be  cautious  not  to  ruin  the 
puffs  with  grease  paints  (colors). 

Soft  Brush. — This  brush  should  be  similar  to 
the  ones  used  on  babies.  It  is  used  to  remove 
superficial  powder  from  the  face. 

Liquid  Powder. — This  is  .used  to  whiten  the 
handSj  neck,  etc. 

Rabbit  Foot. — A  very  primitive  instru- 
ment, but  serves  best  in  applying  rouge  and 
powder. 

Soft  Paper. — Waste  linen,  cotton,  etc.,  to  be 
used  for  removing  make-up. 

Pure  Alcohol. 

Cologne  Water. 

Soap. — Always  of  the  same  kind;  use  only 
the  best  quality. 

Towels. 

Humps,  for  making  wrinkles  with,  etc. 

Pins. — Safety  pins  in  different  sizes. 

The  Mirror. — Do  not  depend  upon  the  mirror 
the  theater  offers  you.  Have  your  own  with 
three  sides.  A  magnifying  mirror  is  also  very 
helpful  in  drawing  details. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE    HAIR 

One's  own  hair  serves  much  better  than  a  wig. 
This  applies  especially  to  the  ladies,  who  should 
study  all  the  possible  ways  of  hairdressing  from 
the  most  antique  to  the  present  times.  Visiting 
art  galleries  and  making  mental  sketches  from 
the  pictures  of  masters  will  be  a  great  help  in 
solving  the  hairdressing  problem. 

The  color  of  the  hair  can  be  changed  with  the 
aid  of  mascharo  applied  with  a  comb  and  brush. 
White  powder  is  very  often  used  in  making  gray 
hair,  but  this  is  less  advisable  than  the  use  of 
mascharo,  which  also  should  be  used  for  the 
whiskers  and  beards  of  men.  To  render  the  hair 
brilliant  and  shiny,  vaseline  is  preferable  to  all 
sorts  of  brilliantines,  as  a  great  many  of  them 
are  harmful. 

Hygiene  of  the  Hair. — When  wearing  a  wig, 
it  is  necessary  to  remove  it  during  the  intermis- 
sions, thereby  giving  the  necessary  ventilation 
to  the  hair. 

Washing  the  head  frequently  is  very  hygienic, 
but  not  always  practicable  or  possible,  especially 

[230] 


THE  HAIR 

for  the  lady  singer.  However,  singers  should 
never  go  out  into  the  open  air  immediately  after 
having  washed  the  hair,  thus  avoiding  possible 
colds  and  catarrhs. 

Combs  and  brushes  that  are  used  for  wigs 
should  not  be  used  for  the  natural  hair. 

When  curly  hair  is  desired,  avoid  as  much  as 
possible  the  use  of  hot  irons.  It  is  preferable 
to  curl  the  hair  the  night  before  by  the  use  of 
the  well-known  "papillons." 

Extreme  cleanliness  must  be  maintained  at  all 
times  in  the  apparatus  used  for  the  care  of  the 
hair. 

The  Wig. — When  ordering  a  wig  care  must 
be  taken  in  selecting  one  exactly  adapted  to  the 
character.  Naturally,  the  actor  must  visualize 
the  type  he  is  going  to  represent,  and  therefore 
must  be  guided  by  his  imagination,  and,  if  pos- 
sible, he  should  sketch  his  idea  to  the  wigmaker, 
always  bearing  in  mind  (imagining)  the  changes 
the  wig  will  produce  in  his  face. 

A  rich,  bushy  wig  will  enlarge  the  appearance 
of  the  face. 

A  small,  close-cut  wig  will  give  the  appear- 
ance of  thinness  to  the  face. 

A  high-dressed  wig  will  increase  the  height;  a 
closely-brushed-to-the-head  wig,  will  make  you 
look  smaller. 

[231] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

A  blonde  wig  makes  the  wearer  appear 
younger,  and  a  brunette  wig  makes  one  look 
older. 

Some  time  ago,  a  celebrated  German  house 
was  conducting  a  mail-order  business  in  wigs. 
But  measuring  one's  self  and  describing  the 
characteristics  in  an  amateurish  way  does  not 
give  satisfactory  results.  Therefore,  when  order- 
ing a  wig,  it  is  advisable  not  to  waste  time  and 
money  in  experiments,  but  to  go  to  the  best  pos- 
sible theatrical  wigmaker,  because  measurements 
must  be  taken  with  minute  preciseness  and  the 
color  of  the  hair  must  be  personally  selected. 

Ladies  should  plan  on  using  one  wig  for  sev- 
eral parts,  adjusting  the  hair  and  redressing  it. 
In  so  doing,  time  and  space  in  their  trunks  can 
be  saved. 

From  a  hygienic  point  of  view,  the  wig  should 
not  be  heavy. 

Wigs  should  be  dressed  by  theatrical  wig- 
makers  who  are  specialists  in  this  line. 

The  wig  must  be  well  pulled  down  in  the  back 
so  as  to  cover  all  the  hair.  When  a  little  of  your 
hair  appears  from  underneath  the  wig,  cover  it 
with  mascharo  or  grease  paint. 

It  is  not  advisable  to  use  hired  wigs.  You 
never  know  who  may  have  used  them  before  you. 
Certainly  you  would  not  wear  some  one  else's 

[232] 


THE  HAIR 

underwear,  so  why  should  you  wear  a  wig  that 
has  been  worn  by  others? 

Half  wigs  and  toupees  are  made  for  bald 
people.  Their  color  should  match  one's  own 
hair.  However,  they  are  used  very  little  on  the 
stage. 

How  to  Put  on  and  Remove  a  Wig. — The 
back  of  the  wig  is  the  part  that  regulates  its  put- 
ting on.  Hold  it  in  both  hands  (by  the  back), 
apply  the  front  at  the  place  where  it  eventually 
comes  in  contact  with  the  skin,  and  pull  it  down 
gently,  always  from  the  back. 

BEARDS  AND  MUSTACHES 

There  is  not  the  least  doubt  that  experience 
is  the  best  teacher  when  it  comes  to  making 
beards  and  mustaches.  Therefore,  it  is  advisable 
to  make  many  practical  studies  of  the  subject. 


FIG.  49. — How  to  apply  the  beard  and  mustache. 

[233] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HTS  ART 

The  above  figure  indicates  clearly  the  progressive 
way  of  applying  a  beard  or  mustache.  The  first 
piece  of  crepe  hair  must  be  applied  under  the 
chin  and  must  be  strongly  pressed  with  a  towel. 
Then,  piece  by  piece,  cover  the  entire  face,  using 
the  scissors  to  give  the  necessary  form  (scissors 
should  not  be  used  in  preparing  the  crepe  hair) . 
The  edges  of  the  beard  must  be  smuttered  out 
(shade  the  edges),  so  as  to  cover  the  spot  where 
the  beard  was  applied. 

Whiskers,  which  are  always  of  a  color  slightly 
lighter  than  the  beard,  are  applied  last.  They 
should  not  be  cut  in  the  middle  but  tied  with  a 
piece  of  string,  or,  preferably,  with  the  same 
crepe  hair.  Whiskers  should  be  shaped  with  the 
aid  of  the  fingers,  then  with  scissors  when  nec- 
essary. To  hold  the  hair  together  and  obtain 
the  necessary  shape,  hot  irons  can  sometimes  be 
used  successfully.  Also  any  kind  of  fiocatoirc 
or  whiskers'  pomade  is  of  service.  Frequently 
actors  design  whiskers  on  the  face.  It  is  my 
opinion  that  this  is  synonymous  to  laziness. 
Ready-made  mustaches  from  theatrical  wig- 
makers  are  highly  recommended. 

Beards  can  also  be  bought  ready  made.  They 
are  made  on  a  form  of  gauze  foundation  and 
should  fit  the  face  perfectly.  This  kind  of  a 

[234] 


FIG.  50. — Different  forms  of  beards  and  mustaches. 


[235] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

beard  is  inconvenient  for  the  singer  as  it  ham- 
pers the  freedom  of  movement  of  the  lower  jaw, 
which  is  so  important  in  singing,  to  a  great  ex- 
tent. However,  if  the  beard  is  not  too  large  and 
is  applied  on  the  chin  only,  this  inconvenience  is 
considerably  reduced. 

Beards  and  mustaches  on  wire  are  not  ad- 
visable for  the  serious  actor  or  singer.  For  quick 
changes,  as  in  "Faust,"  they  are  necessary. 
Wire  frames  and  elastics  should  by  no  means  be 
allowed  to  hamper  the  motions  of  the  face. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  cover  one's  own 
whiskers  or  small  beard,  it  is  advisable  to  soap 
the  hair  flat  and  cover  it  with  ground  or  flesh 
color  grease. 

How  to  Handle  Crepe  Hair. — Comb  out  the 
necessary  quantity  from  the  whole  piece.  Avoid 
the  use  of  scissors  as  much  as  possible,  as  they 
are  bound  to  complicate  the  naturalness.  Work 
it  into  the  desired  shape,  and  then  apply  as  here- 
tofore indicated.  Practice  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary. 

THE  FOREHEAD 

The  forehead  is  a  very  expressive  part  of  the 
body,  and,  in  order  not  to  make  a  mistake,  it  is 
well  to  study  all  the  wrinkles  and  forms  that  the 
skin  may  take  and  to  apply  the  colors  in  accord- 

[236] 


THE  HAIR 

ance   with    nature,    which    is    tracing   direction 
and  form. 

In  changing  the  form  of  the  forehead,  spe- 
cially made,  padded  wigs  are  sometimes  used, 
but  as  their  front  covers  all  the  expressive  parts 
of  the  forehead  they  are  not  always  advisable. 

The  joining  line  where  the  wig  meets  the  skin 
must  be  well  shaded  out  by  groundwork.  And 
only  after  the  forehead  is  completely  covered 
with  ground  color,  should  you  begin  to  make 
the  wrinkles.  Any  exaggerations  will  result 
in  a  poor  effect.  Forms  and  directions  of 
wrinkles  vary  according  to  the  formation  of  the 
brow  and  the  passions  or  expressions  producing 
them. 

Lavater  thinks  that: 

A  low,  small,  retreating  forehead  indicates  a 
low  intellect. 

A  projecting  forehead,  dominating  the  whole 
face,  indicates  dull  intellect. 

A  perpendicular  forehead,  well  rounded  at  the 
temples,  with  straight  and  well  defined  eye- 
brows, indicates  power  of  understanding  and 
concentration. 

An  arched  forehead,  full  at  the  temples,  is  a 
sign  of  sweetness. 

A  forehead  with  sharp  projecting  eyebrows 
indicates  acute  intellect. 

[237] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

A  wrinkled  forehead,  high  or  narrow,  shows 
weakness  of  will  power. 

A  forehead  with  angular  and  knotty  protuber- 
ances shows  vigor  of  mind,  oppressive  activity 
and  perseverance. 

A  forehead  having  perpendicular  wrinkles  be- 
tween the  eyes  indicates  thought,  concentration. 

A  forehead  having  horizontal  wrinkles  indi- 
cates weakness,  anger  and  laziness. 

THE  EYES,  EYELASHES,  EYEBROWS 

Eyes. — The  principal  characteristics  of  the  eye 
are  form,  size,  brilliancy  and  color. 

Regarding  form,  they  may  be  round,  almond- 
shaped  (oriental),  horizontal  or  protruding. 

Regarding  size,  they  may  be  small  or  large. 

Regarding  color,  they  may  be  gray,  green, 
blue  or  dark. 

Gray,  green  and  blue  are  classed  as  belonging 
to  blonde  types,  dark  eyes  to  brunette  types. 
But  there  are  always  exceptions. 

In  the  make-up,  the  form  of  the  eye,  as  well 
as  the  size,  can  be  changed  very  easily.  But  the 
color  cannot.  The  brilliancy  of  the  eyes  can 
be  changed  only  through  mimicry.  Artificial 
preparations  like  atrophine  are  harmful  and  not 
very  effective. 

Kowalewski  and  a  score  of  others  think  that: 
[238] 


THE  HAIR 

Large,  deep  eyes  denote  intellect  and  melan- 
choly; small  eyes  indicate  vivacity;  almond- 
shaped  eyes  indicate  tenderness;  round  eyes  are 
a  sign  of  stupidity  and  vice. 

Lively  and  clear  eyes  are  made  by  tracing  a 
white  line  on  the  lower  eyelid.  In  tired  and  deep 
eyes,  the  ground  color  of  the  eyelids  should  be 
gray  blue  or  dark  blue. 

Sleepy  eyes  (giving  the  impression  of  raising 
with  difficulty)  are  obtained  by  darkening  the 
corners  of  the  eyes  and  tracing  a  white  line  in 
the  middle  of  the  upper  eyelid. 

Sick  eyes  can  be  obtained  by  tracing  a  red  line 
on  the  lower  eyelid.  A  perpendicular  white  line 
on  the  eyelids  renders  the  eye  stupid  (as  in 
idiots) .  The  eyes  of  a  drunkard  should  give  the 
impression  of  being  red  and  swollen,  therefore, 
plenty  of  red  should  be  used. 

The  effect  of  blindness  of  one  eye  is  obtained 
by  making  up  one  eye  and  neglecting  the  other. 

To  render  an  eye  immovable,  paste  a  piece  of 
gauze  on  it ;  cover  it  with  ground  color  and  make 
a  circle  in  the  center. 

Blindness  of  both  eyes  is  obtained  similarly 
by  pasting  pieces  of  gauze  over  them. 

Tears  are  made  with  vaseline,  but,  preferably, 
collodium.  They  are  applied  on  a  completely 
finished  make-up. 

[239] 


In  fantastic  parts,  like  witches  or  devils,  a 
piece  of  silver  or  gold  paper  is  pasted  on  the 
eyebrows.  However,  this  is  very  seldom  used. 

In  some  comic  parts,  electric  lamps  are  used 
to  imitate  the  eyes.  The  battery  is  located  some- 
where in  the  pocket  of  the  costume.  But  I  do 
not  know  of  a  character  on  the  operatic  stage 
that  calls  for  this. 

Eyelashes. — The  form  and  work  of  the  eye- 
lids is  a  very  great  factor  in  the  expressions  of 
the  eye.  Consequently,  the  eyelashes  must  be 
well  cared  for.  Black  grease  paint,  melted  a 
little  over  the  gas  or  a  lighted  match,  should  be 
applied  to  the  eyelashes  with  a  soft,  pointed 
brush  or  lining  stick.  The  amount  is  regulated 
by  the  richness  of  one's  own  eyelashes.  He  who 
possesses  rich  eyelashes  will  need  less  paint,  and 
vice  versa. 

I  have  observed,  especially  among  the  ladies 
(singers  and  actresses),  the  use  of  a  hairpin 
warmed  on  a  match,  with  which  they  melt  the 
grease  paint  and  then  apply  it.  This  is  not  very 
practical  and  is  very  dangerous.  There  is  noth- 
ing easier  than  to  hurt  the  eye  in  a  moment  of 
nervousness,  which  is  an  unavoidable  companion 
in  a  dressing  room. 

Eyebrows. — Usually  people  who  have  rich 
hair  and  beards  have  rich  eyebrows.  When 

[240] 


THE  HAIR 

necessity  requires  it,  the  eyebrows  are  made  out 
of  crepe  hair  and  are  applied  like  whiskers  or  a 
beard.  Artificial  eyebrows  can  also  be  pur- 
chased, but  we  must  realize  that  this  kind  of  eye- 
brow causes  much  inconvenience,  as  it  compro- 
mises the  freedom  of  expression  of  the  forehead. 
When  modeling  them,  use  the  same  process,  with 
the  aid  of  a  comb,  as  when  modeling  whiskers. 
Grease  paints  are  much  more  advisable,  popular 
and  practicable,  and  can  be  used  in  colors  to 
correspond  more  closely  with  the  color  of  the 
hair. 


FIG.  51. — Different  forms  of  eyebrows. 

The  curve  and  the  right  angle  should  be  care- 
fully observed.  The  artist  can  be  greatly  helped 
by  studying  these  in  the  art  galleries.  The  eye- 
brows are  applied  directly  with  the  grease  paint 
stick,  without  the  aid  of  pencils. 

When  a  shaggy  appearance  is  desired,  brush 
the  brows  in  the  opposite  direction,  applying  the 
grease  paint. 

Rich  and  united  eyebrows  give  the  face  an 
expression  of  energy,  courage  and  power. 

[241] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

When  exaggerated,  they  may  indicate  choleric, 
furious  characters. 

When  one  eyebrow  is  lower  than  the  other  it 
is  an  indication  of  astuteness. 

Slightly  rounded  eyebrows  give  an  expression 
of  sweetness  and  tenderness  to  the  face. 

Very  high  and  round  eyebrows  give  an  ex- 
pression of  stupidity  to  the  face  and  are  used 
only  in  comic  parts. 

Eyebrows  unnaturally  raised  at  the  outer  ends 
are  characteristic  of  suspicious,  intrigante,  and, 
sometimes,  clever  people. 

A  face  without  eyebrows  is  given  an  expres- 
sion of  the  greatest  stupidity  and  idiocy. 

Clowns  shave  their  eyebrows,  then  apply  a 
perpendicular  line  between  the  eyes. 

To  obtain  a  savage  expression,  black  paint 
should  be  applied  the  wrong  way. 

Old  age  is  characterized  by  drooping  eye- 
brows. 

Oriental  brows  are  similar  to  an  almond- 
shaped  eye  (Mongolian). 

Mephistophelean  eyes  are  turned  upward  at 
the  outer  corners. 

When  the  effect  of  eyebrows  meeting  is  de- 
sired, it  is  obtained  by  pasting  a  piece  of  crepe 
hair  between  them,  thereby  giving  a  stern  expres- 
sion to  the  face. 

[242] 


THE  HAIR 

Eyebrows  that  are  raised  at  the  starting  point 
( the  nose ) ,  and  then  droop  at  the  end,  denote  a 
sense  of  beauty  and  an  artistic  temperament. 

Eyebrows  that  are  strongly  marked  at  the  be- 
ginning and  that  end  abruptly  indicate  an  im- 
patient nature. 

Strong,  angular  eyebrows,  close  to  the  eyes, 
indicate  productiveness  and  activity. 

Eyebrows  that  are  lighter  than  the  hair  indi- 
cate weakness  and  indecision;  but  eyebrows  that 
are  darker  than  the  hair  indicate  an  ardent  and 
passionate  character.  Eyebrows  of  the  same 
color  as  the  hair  indicate  firmness  and  resolu- 
tion. 

THE  CHEEKS 

The  cheeks  can  be  diminished  or  enlarged. 

To  enlarge  the  cheeks  and  make  the  face  ap- 
pear fuller,  some  people  use  nose  putty.  Per- 
sonally, I  do  not  advise  it.  The  cheek  is  expres- 
sive and  a  very  movable  part  of  the  face.  Under 
these  circumstances,  nose  putty  will  not  adhere 
sufficiently. 

Ready-made  cheeks  are  obtainable  from  the- 
atrical wigmakers,  and  can  be  applied  with 
adhesia.  They  are  much  more  practical  than 
the  ones  improvised  from  nose  putty. 

A  white  spot  in  the  center  of  the  cheek,  with 
[243] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

a  delicate  application  of  brown  or  dark  col- 
ors at  the  edges,  will  produce  an  enlarged  ef- 
fect. 

Some  actors,  not  singers,  hold  pieces  of  cork 
or  cotton  in  their  mouth,  thereby  enlarging  the 
cheek. 

Rouge  is  mostly  always  applied  on  the  cheeks. 
Avoid  overdoing. 

Sadness,  melancholy  and  trouble  make  the 
cheeks  hollow.  On  the  contrary,  good  spirits, 
satisfaction  and  joy  preserve  their  harmony. 


The  nose  is  a  very  prominent  part  of  the  face. 
As  it  is  a  delineator  either  of  beauty  or  ugliness, 
it  must  be  well  attended  to  when  making-up. 
The  physiognomists  claim  that  the  form  of  a 
nose  is  in  strict  rapport  with  the  character  of  a 
person.  In  it  lies  one  of  the  chief  characteristics 
of  the  countenance. 

A  perfect  nose  is  equal  in  length  to  the  fore- 
head. 

Baughan  so  describes  the  nose  in  relation  to 
character : 

A  nose  that  is  arched  from  its  starting  point 
between  the  eyes  shows  capability  of  command, 
energy. 

A  very  prominent  nose  like  that  of  the 
[244] 


THE  HAIR 

beak  of  a  parrot,  with  a  narrow  brow  and 
a  retreating  chin,  indicates  stupidity;  obsti- 
nacy. 

A  straight  nose  indicates  painstaking;  cre- 
ativeness. 

An  arched  nose  with  a  broad  back  (Roman) 
indicates  force  of  character. 


FIG.  52. — Different  forms  of  nose. 

1 — Normal.  2^-Eagle.  3— Raised  up  (witches— tartars).  4 — 
Prolonged,  thin  at  the  end  (comic  parts,  monks,  etc.;  old  butlers 
smelling  of  tobacco).  5 — Hunch-backed  nose  (energetic  man — 
Jews).  6 — Nose  of  the  yellow  race,  7  and  8— Noses  of  negroes. 

A  nose  bending  downward  is  a  sign  of  sad- 
ness or  melancholic  temperament. 

A  snub  nose  (short  in  proportion  to  the  brow 
and  with  a  round  fleshy  tip)  indicates  a  coarse, 
common  nature. 

[245] 


A  turned-up  nose  shows  vivacity,  jealousy, 
impudence  and  petulance. 

Slightly  and  delicately  turned-up  nose  shows 
willfulness  and  coquetry. 

Dilated  nostrils  indicate  passion  in  love. 

Semi-dilated  nostrils  show  melancholy,  timid- 
ity and  pessimistic  character. 

Round  nostrils  are  a  sign  of  animal  instincts 
and  low  individuality. 


4 

FIG.  53. — Molding  of  the  nose. 

To  change  the  contour  of  the  nose,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  resort  to  the  use  of  nose  putty  (nasen- 
kit).  Nose  putty,  like  clay,  can  be  molded  into 
all  the  desired  shapes,  and  must  be  applied  on 
a  perfectly  dry,  grease-free  skin.  Nose  putty 
has  adhesive  qualities,  but  a  little  coating  with 
adhesia  will  strengthen  the  application.  Some- 
times a  nose  made  out  of  nose  putty  can  be  used 
several  times,  providing  care  is  taken  when  re- 
moving it.  However,  this  would  be  a  very  small 

[246] 


THE  HAIR 

economy.  An  artificial  nose  must  be  thor- 
oughly covered  with  ground  color. 

Theatrical  wigmakers  have  different  kinds  of 
ready-made  artificial  noses.  They  may  be  good, 
but  are  not  generally  favored  by  the  artists. 

A  white  line  drawn  on  the  bridge  of  the  nose 
will  make  it  look  more  prominent. 

A  dark  brown  line  will  give  just  the  contrary 
effect. 

Studies  from  life  and  in  galleries  are  advisable. 

THE  EAR 

The  ear  is  of  a  rosy  color  in  normal,  healthy 
persons.  It  is  an  immovable  part  of  the  physi- 
ognomy and  its  form  can  be  changed  only  by 
applying  artificial  ears.  They  are  so  seldom 
used  on  the  singing  stage  that  it  is  not  consid- 
ered necessary  to  devote  any  space  to  them. 
Nevertheless,  the  make-up  of  the  ear  should  be 
kept  in  harmony  with  the  rest  of  the  make-up. 
The  use  of  high  and  low  lights  is  all  that  is  neces- 
sary. Gypsies,  ladies,  and,  sometimes,  seamen, 
as  well  as  savages,  use  earrings. 

THE  MOUTH 

- 

The  mouth  is  considered  one  of  the  chief  in- 
dicators of  character  and  expression;  conse- 
quently it  is  very  important  in  the  make-up. 

[247] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

According  to  Lavater,  the  mouth  with  the 
upper  lip  unproportionately  advanced  is  an  in- 
dication of  good  spirit,  happy  disposition,  but 
when  the  lower  lip  is  strongly  advanced,  it  indi- 
cates an  impulsive,  irritable  character.  When 
both  lips  are  strongly  advanced,  it  is  an  indica- 
tion of  honesty.  Thin,  compressed  lips  indicate 
sinister  feeling.  Small,  normal  lips  are  a  sign 
of  intellectual  aspirations.  Thick  lips  indicate 
vice  and  sexual  desires.  A  lipless  mouth,  show- 
ing very  little  of  the  lips,  indicates  coldness. 

To  obtain  the  necessary  shapes  and  effects,  one 
must  learn  how  to  change  the  form  and  size  of 
the  mouth.  In  changing  the  form,  the  corners 
of  the  lips  are  raised  to  impersonate  a  good, 
noble,  happy  character,  and  lowered  to  indicate 
low  characters.  The  raising  of  the  corners  of 
the  lips  is  done  by  drawing  a  line  upward  from 
the  mouth,  and  the  lowering,  by  drawing  a  line 
downward  from  the  mouth.  The  lines  are  drawn 
with  a  pointed  brush  and  should  be  of  the  same 
color  as  the  wrinkles. 

To  enlarge  the  mouth,  a  short  straight  line 
between  the  lips  will  often  be  sufficient;  enlarg- 
ing the  lips  makes  the  mouth  appear  larger. 
Diminishing  the  size  of  the  lips  with  the  ground 
grease  color  will  make  the  mouth  appear  smaller. 
Sick,  dry  lips,  .as  in  tuberculosis,  are  obtained 

[248] 


THE  HAIR 

by  applying  few  little  white  spots  on  each  lip. 
Drooping  lips  can  be  obtained  by  drawing  a  line 
under  the  lower  lip,  made  up  with  feeble  red 
(this  line  should  be  similar  to  a  shadow).  The 
upper  lip  should  be  made  up  with  strong  red. 


FIG.  54. — Changing  of  the  mouth. 


In  juvenile  make-up,  a  healthy  mouth*  is  ob- 
tained by  the  application  of  special  red  paint  to 
the  lips. 

When  a  smile  is  desired,  the  corners  of  the 
mouth  are  raised.  When  lowered,  the  effect  is 
that  of  melancholy  and  dissatisfaction.  Low- 
ering one  lip  and  raising  the  other  causes  the 
mouth  to  become  irregular  and  to  appear  iron- 
ical. 

An  application  of  vaseline  to  the  corners  of 
the  lips  on  a  finished  make-up  is  a  very  good  imi- 
tation of  saliva,  as  in  epileptics  and  drunkards. 

[249] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

THE  TEETH 

An  even,  white  set  of  teeth  will  always  prove 
a  great  asset  to  one's  general  appearance.  When 
playing  juvenile  parts,  particular  care  should  be 
taken  that  the  teeth  are  white,  which  may  be 
obtained  through  the  use  of  special  white  enamel 
which  will  whiten  even  badly  discolored  teeth. 
This  enamel  will  keep  the  teeth  white  through  an 
entire  performance. 

To  affect  a  missing  tooth  several  simple 
methods  may  be  employed.  One  of  the  teeth 
may  be  painted  with  email  noir  (black  enamel), 
or  a  piece  of  black  wax  may  be  worked  in  the 
palm  of  the  hand  until  soft,  then  used  to  cover 
the  tooth.  Still  another  way  to  turn  the  trick 
is  to  use  black  grease  paint,  or  to  fasten  black 
court-plaster  to  the  gums. 

THE  CHIN 

Transforming  the  chin  by  artificial  means  to 
suit  a  certain  character  is  rather  difficult.  Be- 
cause of  the  constant  moving  of  the  lower  jaw, 
ordinary  putty  is  not  practicable,  as  the  gestures 
would  loosen  it  long  before  the  termination  of 
the  act. 

A  better  way  is  to  order  a  chin  made  by  the 
theatrical  coiffeur  (Frisseur)  to  harmonize  with 

[250] 


THE  HAIR 

the  mask.  This  chin  can  be  applied  with  a  coat- 
ing of  adhesia. 

The  chin  can  be  enlarged  by  tracing  a  short 
white  line  in  the  middle  of  it;  diminished,  with 
the  aid  of  dark  red  or  brown.  A  rosy  chin  makes 
the  face  appear  younger.  Slightly  covering  the 
chin  with  gray  blue  will  cause  the  face  to  appear 
older,  and  give  the  impression  of  being  unshaved. 

A  perpendicular  line  drawn  in  the  middle  of 
the  chin  with  dark  red  or  brown  portrays  a 
strong,  energetic  character.  If  we  wish  to  be- 
lieve what  the  physiognomists  say,  a  round  chin 
with  a  dimple  in  it  indicates  benevolence,  kind- 
ness and  courtesy.  A  pointed  chin,  exagger- 
atedly prolonged  and  projecting  forward,  indi- 
cates hypocrisy  and  astuteness.  A  retreating 
chin  indicates  silliness.  A  flat  chin  indicates 
avarice  and  coldness — a  hard  nature.  A  small 
chin  indicates  weakness.  A  soft,  fat,  double  chin 
is  a  sign  of  indolence ;  love  of  sensual  pleasure. 

THE  NECK 

The  make-up  of  the  neck  should  always  be  in 
harmony  with  that  of  the  face.  In  playing  parts 
where  the  neck  is  covered  by.  the  collar  of  the 
costume,  make-up  is  unnecessary.  In  portraying 
the  part  of  old  age,  the  veins  must  be  made 
prominent.  The  veins  are  made  up  with  dark 

[251] 


FIG.  55. — Signer  Wronski  as  Mephistopheles  in  "Mephistopheles." 


[252] 


FIG.  56. — Signer  Wronski  as  Lothario  in  "Mignon." 


[253] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

gray  or  dark  blue,  with  the  aid  of  high  lights. 
It  is  important  that  the  actor  familiarize  himself 
with  the  anatomical  position  of  the  veins.  Plac- 
ing "Adam's  apple"  a  little  lower  than  its  nor- 
mal position  (which  is  done  by  marking  a  white 
spot  surrounded  by  a  ring  of  brown  or  dark  red ) 
will  make  the  neck  look  longer.  However, 
singers  should  not  exaggerate  in  this  displace- 
ment, as  the  Adam's  apple  is  a  very  movable  spot 
in  singing,  and  exaggeration  would  cause  it  to 
look  artificial. 

Always  observe  the  back  of  your  neck  before 
leaving  the  dressing  room,  to  make  certain  there 
is  no  hair  showing  below  the  wig. 

THE  ARMS,  HANDS,  FINGERS  AND  NAILS 

The  Arms. — The  arms  of  men  are  seldom  ex- 
posed. When  necessary  (1'ke  Mephisto  in  pro- 
logue) the  muscles  should  be  brought  out  with 
high  lights  and  shadows.  Follow  the  construc- 
tion of  muscles  precisely.  The  veins  of  the  arms 
are  drawn  in  blue  or  dark  gray.  In  parts  where 
the  color  of  the  whole  face  and  the  arms  must 
be  changed,  special  preparations  should  be  used 
for  the  arms  also  (see  another  paragraph). 

The  Hands. — The  make-up  of  the  hands  must 
be  studied  according  to  the  age,  social  character, 

[254] 


THE  HAIR 

and  profession  of  the  character  portrayed,  and 
must  be  in  perfect  harmony  with  the  rest  of  the 
make-up.  To  make  the  hands  appear  whiter, 
liquid  powder  is  used  in  juvenile  make-up. 
Concert  singers  should  also  use  this  prepara- 
tion. 

Slender  hands  are  obtained  by  working 
according  to  anatomical  directions  of  high  lights 
and  shadows.  In  making  up  aged  hands,  ob- 
serve the  rules  governing  the  make-up  of 
wrinkles. 

The  Fingers. — The  fingers  are  made  to  ap- 
pear longer  by  sinking  the  space  between  the 
knuckles  well  up  on  the  hands.  False  fingers, 
made  of  cotton  in  the  form  of  cones,  dipped  in 
adhesia,  then  applied  to  the  fingers,  will  still 
better  serve  the  purpose.  Slender,  skinny,  thin 
fingers  are  obtained  by  sinking  the  space  be- 
tween them. 

The  Nails. — The  nails  should  be  attended  to 
by  a  manicurist,  especially  when  on  the  concert 
platform.  They  should  have  a  rosy  color,  which 
can  be  obtained  with  special  manicure  prepara- 
tions. 

The  nails  of  Mephisto,  or  of  witches,  are  made 
of  stiff  paper  cut  in  the  proper  shape  and  pasted 
to  the  human  nail. 

[255] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

THE  FEET  AND  LEGS 

The  form  of  the  legs  can  be  changed  only  by 
the  use  of  under-tights,  heavily  lined  with  layers 
of  wool.  Of  course  they  must  be  made  to  order 
by  a  good  costume  maker.  They  must  fit  per- 
fectly and  should  be  tried  out  thoroughly,  as 
they  handicap  the  freedom  of  movement  to  a  cer- 
tain extent. 

Very  little  need  be  said  as  to  the  feet.  They 
are  always  covered  with  shoes.  Theatrical  shoes 
should  be  made  to  order,  and  in  perfect  har- 
mony with  the  costume.  When  it  is  necessary 
to  appear  "bare-footed,"  draw  the  contour  of 
the  toes  on  the  tights,  which  must  be  of  flesh 
color. 

PADDINGS 

(Stuffings] 

Paddings  handicap  the  freedom  of  movement 
and  are  advised  only  when  absolutely  neces- 
sary. 

For  instance,  great  skill  is  required  in  making 
the  paddings  when  singing  a  role  like  "Falstaff," 
where  every  part,  beginning  with  the  face,  must 
be  padded. 

The  paddings  should  be  ordered  from  a  the- 
atrical costumer  and  shall  be  made  to  fit  that 

[256] 


THE  HAIR 

part  of  the  body  for  which  they  are  intended. 
Ladies  frequently  use  inflated  busts  when  it  is 
necessary  that  the  chest  appear  larger.  Corsets 
are  used  when  it  is  desired  to  appear  slender,  but 
the  singer,  if  not  accustomed  to  wearing  them, 
should  avoid  them  as  much  as  possible,  from  a 
vocal  point  of  view. 

The  padding  of  the  chest  is  used  in  portraying 
energetic  characters.  The  stomach  is  padded 
when  playing  comic  parts.  The  back  is  padded 
when  portraying  hunchbacks,  etc. 

HOW  TO  INCREASE  AND  DECREASE  HEIGHT 

To  increase  height,  use: 

1.  Double  soles  in  the  shoes,  or  specially 
made  shoes. 

2.  High  inside  or  external  heels. 

3.  Use  high  wig. 

4.  Pad  your  shoulders  slightly. 

5.  Keep    the   body    as    straight    as    possi- 
ble. 

6.  Use  striped  costumes  (optical  effect) . 
To  decrease  height,  use: 

1.  Low  heels  and  single  soles. 

2.  Low  wig  and  large  costumes. 

3.  Hold  all  your  body  diminished  as  much 
as  possible. 

[257] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

YOUTH,  MATURITY,  OLD  AGE 
(Also  see  separate  paragraph  on  features) 

At  every  age  the  face  of  a  woman  is  whiter, 
sweeter,  less  wrinkled  and  more  harmonious  than 
the  face  of  a  man. 


FIG.  57. — A  diagram  showing  the  gradual  application  of  rouge 
in  make-up  of  youth. 

In  the  make-up  of  youth,  the  skin  must  have 
a  healthy,  white-rosy  appearance.  Therefore, 
it  is  necessary  to  apply  several  spots  of  youth 
flesh  ground  color  to  the  face  and  to  distribute 
it  with  the  fingers  (observe  the  rules  governing 
the  application  of  make-up). 

When  necessary,  put  the  wig  on,  and  blend  or 
dress  the  hair. 

[258] 


THE  HAIR 

A  beard  or  whiskers,  when  used,  should  be 
applied  before  the  groundwork. 

Apply  red  to  the  cheeks  and  blend  it  with  the 
skin. 

Avoid  wrinkles.  Apply  powder.  Fix  the 
eyes,  eyelids  and  eyebrows.  Make  up  the  lips. 
Whiten  the  hands,  make  your  nails  rosy,  etc. 

Maturity. — When  beards,  whiskers,  artificial 
noses,  cheeks,  eyebrows,  chins,  etc.,  requiring 
adhesia  to  hold  them  in  place,  are  used,  they  must 
be  attended  to  first.  Then  all  necessary  wrin- 
kles of  the  face.  Next,  put  on  the  wig,  blending 
it  with  your  groundwork.  Then  make  the 
wrinkles  of  the  forehead,  eyes  and  mouth.  Apply 
powder  (dark  color).  Make  up  the  hands. 

Extremely  Old  Age. — During  the  perform- 
ance, the  make-up  of  old  age  must  be  changed 
according  to  the  passing  of  time.  If  the  make- 
up does  not  need  any  radical  changes,  just  give 
attention  to  the  most  prominent  lines,  such  as 
wrinkles,  eyebrows  and  lips.  Powder  frequently, 
as  this  tends  to  alleviate  perspiration. 

IMITATION  OF  EFFECTS  PRODUCED 
BY  SICKNESSES 

Tuberculosis. — Pale  lips,  pale  face,  a  little  red 
color  on  the  cheek  bones,  showing  feverish  con- 
dition, with  eyes  sunken  with  gray  blue. 

[259] 


THE  SINGER  AND  HIS  ART 

Madness. — The  face  must  be  red,  disorderly 
hair,  enlarged  eyes.  After  an  attack,  the  face  is 
pale,  lips  white,  and  the  eyes  tired. 

Drunkenness. — The  nose  and  ears  are  red, 
eyes  tired,  eyelids  drooping,  and  the  hair  and 
costume  in  complete  disorder. 

Idiocy. — Portrayed  by  good  mimicry.  The 
make-up  should  be  marked  by  a  contrast,  for 
instance,  make  the  eyes  gay  and  the  corners  of 
the  lips  drooped  or  vice  versa. 

Imitation  of  wounds. — In  the  place  where  the 
wound  should  appear,  trace  a  red  line  or  spot, 
then,  underneath  it,  a  white  one. 

To  have  the  wound  appear  immediately  after 
being  wounded  the  actor  must  have  a  concealed 
small  sponge  wet  in  carmine,  diluted  in  alcohol  or 
water,  and  at  a  certain  moment  press  it  to  the 
desired  spot. 

Drops  of  blood  are  imitated  with  red  grease 
paint. 

CHANGING  THE  COLOR  OF  THE  SKIN 

(Different  races) 

When  it  is  necessary  to  make  up  to  portray 
characters  of  the  yellow,  brown,  red  or  black 
race,  as  in  the  operas  of  "Aida,"  "Africana," 
"Othello,"  etc.,  liquid  colors  that  are  specially 
prepared  for  this  purpose  should  be  substituted 

[260] 


THE  HAIR 

for  the  grease  paints.  Liquid  colors  distribute 
more  evenly,  adhere  to  the  skin  better  during 
the  performance,  and  wash  off  more  easily. 
Often  special  tights  are  worn  when  change  of 
color  of  the  arms  and  legs  is  desired. 

WHAT  MEMORY  MAY  NOT  HOLD,  THE 
PEN  WILL  RECALL 

Album;  Diary. — All  stagefolk  should  gather 
all  available  data  of  stage  and  civilian  types  in 
the  form  of  photos,  prints  and  lithos.  These  col- 
lections may  be  assembled  in  book  form,  together 
with  written  descriptions  of  the  appearance  of 
persons  encountered,  and  a  sketch  of  the  impres- 
sions caused  by  their  make-up  and  general  ap- 
pearance. 

There  is  always  a  chance  that  sooner  or  later 
some  valuable  hint  may  be  found  by  referring 
to  this  data.  If  this  suggestion  is  followed,  a 
reference  book  can  be  compiled  that  will  be  as 
valuable  to  the  actor  as  is  the  encyclopedia  to  the 
literary  man. 


INDEX 


and     stage, 


Acting — opera 

118 

Album,  diary,  261 
Anatomy,  88 


Classification      of      motions, 
136 

arms  and  hands,  146 

ears,  146 

eyes,  139 

forehead     and     eyebrows, 
138 

hair,  146 

hand  and  fingers,  154 

head,  137 

kiss,  144 

kneeling,  162 

manner    of    being    seated, 
162 

mouth,  142 

nose,  142 

salutation,  164 

t-runk    and    breathing    ac- 
tion, 156 

walking,  158 
Classification  of  the  voice,  8 

range,  9 

timbre  or  quality,  10 

vocal  temperament,  1 1 


Defective  voices,  44 
drawn-out  voice,  5 1 
enlarged  voice,  51 
forced  voice,  51 
misuse  of  vocal  machinery, 

48 

pinched  voice,  51 
quivering  voice,  51 
singing  on  the  breath,  49 
singing     on     the     timbre, 

50 

supports  of  the  voice,  46 
tense  or  stiff  voice,  52 
vibrato,  52 

Development  of  voice,  25 
intensity,  25 
range,  27 
timbre,  25 

Effects  of  pathological  states 
on  expressions,  202 

death,  205 

drunkenness,  204 

life      in      prison,      moral 
death,  207 

madness,  202 

nervousness,  203 

trembling,  204 
Elements  of  mimicry,  135 


INDEX 


Evolution  of  make-up,  211 

application  and  removal, 
217 

arms,  hands,  fingers,  nails, 
254 

beards  and  mustaches,  233 
how  to  handle,  236 

changing  the  color  of  the 
skin,  260 

cheeks,  the,  243 

chin,  the,  250 

ear,  the,  247 

eyes,  eyelashes,  eyebrows, 
238 

feet  and  legs,  256 

forehead,  the,  236 

fundamental  rules,  220 

hair,  the,  230 
hygiene,  230 
wig,  231 

how  to  increase  and  de- 
crease height,  257 

imitation  of  effects  pro- 
duced by  sickness, 
260 

in  the  dressing  room,  223 

individuality  in  make-up, 
215 

make-up  box,  227 

mouth,  251 

nose,  244 

optical  influence  and  de- 
lusion through  light- 
ing effects,  224 

paddings,  256 

teeth,  250 


Evolution  of  make-up  (Co«/.) 

what  is  make-up?  214 

youth,   maturity,  old   age, 

258 

Exercises  for  elasticity,  134 
Expressions,  166 

admiration,  182 

agitation,  198 

anger,  193 

arrogance,  199 

astonishment,  182 

attention,  180 

crying,  176 

decision,  186 

disdain,  195 

disgust,  196 

fear,  terror,  187 

hatred,  191 

horror,  190 

hypocrisy,  200 

indignation,  194 

lack  of  understanding,  200 

love    in    different    stages, 
177 

meditation,  184 

pleasure  and  pain,  171 

rage,  192 

reflection,  184 

scorn,  194 

smile,  laugh,  173 

sneering,  194 

surprise,  182 

Female  voices,  12 

Fundamentals,  3 

essentials,  4 


[264] 


INDEX 


Fundamentals  (Conf.) 

how         individuality         is 

ruined,  5 
imitation,  6 
individuality,  4 

General  conservation  of  the 

voice,  14 
breathing,  15 
breathing  exercises,  22 

Halls,  42 

How  to  study  and  analyze  a 

part,  119 
analysis : 

aesthetic,  122 
age,  126 
character,  122 
intellectual,  123 
physiological,  121 
profession,  127 
race,  123 
sex,  126 

general  rules,  128 
Hygiene  of  voice,  97 

Interpretation    and    expres- 
sion, 32 

accentuation,  34 
mouth,  37 
phonograph,  40 
pronunciation,  35 


Male  voices,  12 


Natural  tone  production,  64 
forward  voice,  64 
full  voice,  67 

Peculiarities  of  tone,  72 
American,  86 
English,  82 
French,  75 
German,  76 
Hebrew,  77 
Irish,  83 
Italian,  72 
Oriental,  85 
Polish,  81 
Russian,  79 
Scandinavian,  83 
South  American,  86 
Spanish,  85 
Tyrolese,  84 

Study  in  make-up  by  author: 
Mephistopheles,  252 
Mignon,  253 

Vocal  hygiene,  68 

how  long  to  practice,  70 

how  long  to  study,  70 

how  to  practice,  68 

when  should  vocal  educa- 
tion be  started,  70 
Voices    defective    for    other 
reasons,  63 

clouded,  63 

dry,  63 

sharp,  63 

tremolo,  64 


[265] 


INDEX 


Voices  using  resonators  im- 
perfectly, 53 
chest,  53 
closed,  55 
dark  or  deep,  54 
guttural,  56' 

hollow  or  cavernous,  56 
humming,    mouth    closed, 

60 
nasal,  6l 


Voices   (Cont.) 
smothered,  58 
snuffling,  6l 
throaty,  57 
tricky,  62 
white,  61 
yawning  or  gaping,  59 


What  is  mimicry?  116 


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